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TLbc IRural Science Series 

L. H. BAILEY, Editoe 



2/^ 



THE 

COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 

OF NORTH AMERICA 



Edited by L. H. Bailey 

The Soil. King. 

The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. 

Milk and its Products. Wing. Enlarged and Revised. 

The Fertility of the Land. Roberta. 

The Principles of Peuit-geowing. Bailey. 20th Edi- 
tion, Revised. 

Bush-fruits. Card. Revised. 

Fertilizers. Yoorhees. Revised. 

The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. Revised. 

Irrigation and Drainage. King. 

The Farmstead. Roberts. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fairchild. 

The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. 

Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised. 

The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. (Now Rural Text- 
Book.) iSeries Revised. 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. Roberts. 

The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 

The Horse. Roberts. 

How to Choose a Farm. Hunt. 

Forage Crops. Voorhees. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 

The Nursery-book. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) 

Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised. 

The Forcing-book. Bailey, 

The Pruningbook. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) 

Fruit Growing in Arid Regions. Paddock a/nd Whipple. 

Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 

Dry-farming. Widtsoe. 

Law for the American Farmer. Green. 

Farm Boys and Giels. UcKeever. 

The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. 

Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. 

Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 

The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. 

Household Insects. Herrick. 

Citrus Fruits. Coit. 

Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. 

Beekeeping. Phillips. 

Subtropical Vegetable-gardening. Rolfs. 

Turf for Golf Courses. Piper and Oakley. 

The Potato. Gilbert. 

Strawberry-growing. Fletcher. 

Western Live-stock Management. Potter. 

Peach growing. Gould. 

The Sugar-beet in America. Harris. 

Pork-production. Smith. 

The Development of Institutions under Ireiqatiom. 
Thomas. 

Landscape-gardening. Simonds. 

Commercial Apple Industry of Noeth Amkeica. Folger 
and Thomson. 

The Sweet Potato. Hand and Cockerham. 



THE 

COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 

OF NORTH AMERICA 



BY 

J^C. FOLGER 

n 
Assistant Secretary 
International Apple Shippers' Association 

AND 

S. M. THOMSON 

Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States 
Department of Agriculture 



Beta gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1921 

All rights reterved 



3b 






Copyright, 1921, 

bt the i^iacmillan company 



Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1921. 



MAR -2 1321 



^C1.A605971 



TO 
EDWARD H. THOMSON 

WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL 

HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE 

PREPARATION OF THIS WORK 

THE AUTHORS 

INSCRIBE THE BOOK 



PREFACE 

In collecting material for this work, the authors have 
visited practically every important apple-growing county 
in the United States; first in connection vpith a special 
investigation of the cost of producing apples in important 
regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management, 
United States Department of Agriculture; and later as 
Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system 
for estimating important fruit crops and particularly 
the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au- 
thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the 
many published works on the apple have not dealt system- 
atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which 
only recently has become a well defined industry entirely 
separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of 
propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated 
in separate books. The apple is approached in this book 
from the point of view of commerce. 

In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E. 
Miarshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for 
aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler 
of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to 
E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others 
both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va- 
rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations. 

vii 



Preface 

For the Canadian material; the authors are indebted to Mr. 
C W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand 
material, to Mr. S. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr 
of Victoria, and K. A. Clayton of !N"ew Zealand. 

The Authobs. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

Importance and History of the Apple Industry . . 1-27 

Decline of farm orchards 3-6 

Centralized plantings in favored regions . . . 6-7 

Outlook for the apple industry 7-12 

Favorable factors 9-15 

Increase in population 10 

Movement to the city 10-11 

Development of foreign market ... 11 

Education and advertising 12 

Transportation 12 

Distribution 12-13 

Improved cultural methods 13-14 

Increase in the use of by-products ... 14 

Future production 14^15 

Unfavorable factors 15-19 

Increased commercial crop 16-17 

Poor outlook for unfavored region ... 17 

Danger from boom development . . . 17-18 

Competition with citrus fruit .... 18-19 

Conclusions 19-20 

History of commercial apple-growing in the United 

States 30-26 

Scientific classification 26-27 

CHAPTER II 

Leading Apple Regions of the United States . . . 28-84 

Western New York 29-32 

Hudson Valley 32-33 



Contents 

PAGES 

New England Baldwin belt 33-34 

The Champlain district 35-36 

New Jersey 36-37 

Delaware 37-38 

Shenandoah-Cumberland district 38-40 

Piedmont district of Virginia 40-42 

Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and 

Virginia 42-43 

Mountain region of North Carolina 43—45 

Mountain region of Georgia 45-46 

Ohio 46-48 

Southern Ohio Kome Beauty district . . . 46-47 

Minor regions in Ohio 47-48 

Kentucky . . . 48 

Michigan 49-50 

Illinois 50-54 

Southern Illinois early apple region . . . 51-52 

Mississippi Valley region of Illinois ... 52 

Southeastern Illinois 53-54 

Ozark region 54r-56 

Missouri River region 56-59 

Arkansas Valley of Kansas 59 

Colorado 60-62 

New Mexico 62-63 

Utah 63 

Montana 64 

Washington 64-70 

Yakima Valley 65-67 

Wenatchee North Central Washington district 67-69 

Spokane district 70 

Walla Walla district 70 

Oregon 70-73 

Hood River Valley 70-72 

Rogue River Valley 72-73 

Other apple districts in Oregon 73 

Idaho 74-75 

Payette district 74-75 

Boise Valley 75 



Contents 



zi 



PAGES 

Twin Falls 75 

Lewiston section 75 

California 76-79 

Watsonville district 76-77 

Sebastopol apple district ....... 78 

Yucaipa section 78-79 

Wisconsin 79-80 

Minnesota 80 

Early apple regions 80-84 

New York and New England 81 

New Jersey 81-82 

Delaware . 82 

Southern and Middle Atlantic states ... 83 

East North Central states 83 

Southern Illinois 83 

California 83-84 

CHAPTER in 

Commercial Apple Production in Canada, Australia 

AND New Zealand 85-99 

Canada 85-95 

Nova Scotia 86-88 

Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick . 88-89 

Quebec 89 

Ontario 90-92 

British Columbia 92-95 

Australia and New Zealand 95-99 

CHAPTER IV 



llity and Site for the Comimercul Orchard . 


100-132 


Choosing the locality 


100-132 


Western New York 


100-101 


Hudson Valley 


101-102 


Champlain district 


102-103 


New England 


103 


New Jersey-Delaware Peninsula . . . 


104 



-"^ii Contents 

PAGES 

Shenandoah-Cumberland region .... 104-105 

Piedmont region of Virginia 105-106 

Southern Ohio Eome Beauty section . . . 106 

Western Michigan 106-107 

Illinois 107 

Ozark region 107-108 

Missouri Eiver region 108-109 

Western Slope of Colorado 109 

Utah 109-110 

Idaho 110-111 

Washington 111-112 

Montana 112 

Oregon 112-113 

California 113-115 

New Mexico 115 

Choosing the site for a fruit-farm . " . . . . 116-132 

Raw versus planted land 116 

Time to buy 117 

Syndicate projects 117-118 

Yields and varieties 118 

Proximity to market 118-119 

Distance from shipping station 119-120 

Bearing age of trees 120-122 

Diseases and insect pests 122-123 

Climatic influences 123-125 

Size of farm 125-126 

Necessary capital 126-128 

Labor conditions 128-129 

Social conditions 129 

Regional developments 130 

Soil 130-132 



CHAPTER V 

The Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing . 133-143 

Farm organization in relation to the orchard . . 133-140 

Systems of tenantry 140-143 



Contents xiii 

CHAPTER VI 

PAGES 

Establishing the Apple Orchard 144-154 

Nursery stock 145-147 

Systems of planting 147-150 

Square system 148-149 

Hexagonal system 149-150 

Quincvmx system 150 

Planting distances 150-151 

Time to plant 151 

Setting trees 151-152 

Heading trees 152-153 

Use of fillers and inter-crops 153-154 

CHAPTER VII 

Cultivation op the Orchard 155-171 

Clean cultivation 156-157 

Sod- or grass-mulch 157-158 

Clean cultivation with cover-crops 159-160 

Cover-crops 160-162 

Value of cultivation and methods 162-165 

Implements 165 

The tractor in the apple orchard 165-171 

Truck 171 



CHAPTER Vm 

Irrigation 172-185 

Choosing an irrigated district 177-180 

Irrigating the orchard 181-183 

Quantity of water to supply 181-182 

Time to irrigate orchards 182 

Number of applications 182-183 

Methods of irrigation 183-185 



xiv Contents 

CHAPTER IX 

PAGES 

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard . . . 186-205 

Present practices in fertilizing 187-188 

Value of stable manure 188-189 

Experiments with fertilizers 189-198 

Eesearch work of Kraus and Kraybill . . . 189-191 

Experiments in Pennsylvania 191-195 

Nitrate experiments by Lewis 195-198 

Amount of fertilizer to a tree 198-199 

Needs of irrigated regions 199-200 

Nitrate of soda 200 

Methods of applying fertilizers 200-202 

Pruning with reference to fertilizing .... 202 

Fertilizer tests 202-203 

General summary and specific recommendations . 204-205 

CHAPTER X 

Diseases and Pests op the Apple and Their Control 206-248 

Important insect enemies of the apple .... 206-216 

The codlin-moth 206-210 

San Jose scale 210-211 

Oyster-shell scale 211 

Apple aphids 211-213 

Plum curculio 213 

Apple red bugs 214 

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar 214 

Round-headed apple-tree borer 214-215 

Cutworms 215 

Bud-moth 215 

The fruit-tree leaf-roller 215-216 

Important apple diseases 216-223 

Apple-scab 216-217 

Apple-blotch 217 

Sooty-blotch and fly-speck 217 

Cedar-rust 218 

Bitter-rot 218-219 



Contents xv 

PAGES 

Blister-canker 219-220 

Collar-rot 220-221 

Fire-blight 221-222 

Apple rosette 222-223 

Baldwin-spot 223 

Animal pests of the apple 223-226 

Meadow mice 223-224 

Pine mice 224-225 

Control of mice by poisoning 225-226 

Spraying 226-235 

Cost of spraying 228-230 

Spray equipment 230-232 

Hired sprayers 232-233 

Regional spraying notes 233-235 

Dusting 235-238 

Insecticides 238-247 

For biting insects 239-241 

For sucking insects, contact sprays .... 241-246 

Spreaders for the different insecticides . . . 246-247 

Fungicides 247-248 

CHAPTER XI 

Fruit Setting and Pollination 249-257 

Causes for the failure to set fruit 250-255 

Essentials for a good pollinizer 255-257 

CHAPTER XII 

PRUNma AND Thinning 258-283 

Types of training apple trees 259-268 

Natural form 260 

Central leader system 261 

Open center, or vase-shape 262-264 

The double-headed type 264-265 

The modified leader tree 266-268 

General treatment of young trees 268-270 

After first season 268-269 



xvi Contents 

PAGES 

After second season 269 

After third season 269-270 

Vegetative, transitory and fruitage stages . . . 270-276 

Transition period 270-271 

The fruiting period 271 

Fruit-buds 271-272 

Changing system of pruning 272-274 

Bearing trees 274-275 

Distribution and establishment of fruiting 

wood 275-276 

Time of pruning 276-277 

Pruning tools 277-278 

Wound dressings 278 

Thinning 278-283 

Time and method of thinning 281-282 

Cost of thinning . 283 

CHAPTER XIII 

Renovation of Old Orchards 284-290 

General treatment 285-286 

Pruning 286-238 

Spraying 288 

Soil management 289-290 

CHAPTER XIV 

Handling the Crop 291-312 

Picking 291-296 

Contract picking versus day labor .... 294 

Picking utensils 294-296 

Packing 296-312 

Sorting and packing barreled apples . . . 296-302 

Orchard packing 297-298 

Packing-houses for barreled apples . . 298-302 

Handling the western box apple crop . . . 302-307 

Orchard carriers 303 

Sorting and packing the boxed apples . 303-305 



Contents xvii 

PAGES 

Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307 

Mechanical sizers 307-308 

Community packing-houses 308-312 

Methods of operating community pack- 
ing-houses 309-310 

Packing-house construction .... 310-312 
Bulk shipments 312 

CHAPTEE XV 

Marketing and Storage 313-338 

Selling on consignment , . 313-314 

Selling to cash buyers 314-316 

The lump-sum cash buyer 315 

Tree-run cash buyer 315-316 

Cooperative methods of selling 31G-322 

Form of organization for cooperative associa- 
tions 319-321 

Pooling 321-322 

Purchase of supplies 322 

Distribution 322-325 

Commission-man 323 

The broker 323-324 

Carlot operator 324-325 

Carlot distributor 325 

Field of distribution 325-329 

Foreign markets 325-327 

Improved distribution within the United 

States 327-329 

Physical handling 329 

Grades and standards 329-333 

Standard package 330-332 

Inspection at point of origin ...... 332-333 

Storage 333—336 

Local vs. distance storage 334-335 

Common storage 335-336 

Handling and cultural methods as relating to 

storage 336 



xviii Contents 

PAGES 

Government agencies in marketing 336-338 

Crop estimates 337 

Market and storage reports 337-338 

Cooperative vs. individual effort 33t 



CHAPTEE XVI 
Yields 339-341 

CHAPTEK XVII 

By-Pboducts op the Apple Industry 348-35( 

Evaporators 350-35 

Natural draft evaporators 350-352 

Forced draft evaporators 352-354 

Distillation types of evaporators .... 354-35S 

Canning, jelly manufacturing 355-356 

Cider and vinegar 356 

CHAPTER XVin 

Cost of Production 357-386 

Importance of yields 361-364 

Influence of size of orchard 364-366 

Effect of size and type of farm 366-369 

Effect of climate and soil on cost of production . 369-370 

Influence of varieties 370-371 

Accessibility to market 372 

Cost of materials 372 

Labor and cost production 373-374 

Orchard maintenance 374-379 

Cost of pruning and brush disposal . . . 375-376 

Soil management 376-378 

Thinning 378-379 

Harvesting costs 379-383 

Conclusions 383-38 



Contents xix 

CHAPTER XIX 

PAGES 

Varieties of Apples 387^57 

Summer varieties 394-395 

Late varieties 395-426 

..^Baldwin 396 

-yBen Davis 397 

--Winesap . 398 

-'Rhode Island Greening 398-399 

Jonathan 399-400 

York Imperial 400 

Rome 401 

- Northern Spy 401^02 

- Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) . . . 402-403 
Esopus Spitzenburg 403-404 

^Grimes Golden 404-405 

.. Stayman 405-406 

' \ Delicious 406-407 

Gano and Black Ben 407 

Yellow Bellflower 407-408 

Russets 408-410 

Tompkins King 410-411 

^Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig) .... 411 

•^Wagener 411-412 

/Arkansas Black 412-413 

Willow Twig 413 

White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain) . 414 

Red Limbertwig 414 

Yates 415 

Stark ■. . . . 415^16 

Hubbardston 416-417 

Tolman Sweet' 417 

Winter Banana 418 

Missouri Pippin 418-t419 

Northwestern Greening 419 

Rambo 419-420 

Ortley 420-421 

Red Canada 421 



XX Contents 

PAQES 

Monmouth 421-422 

^Collins 422 

\ Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet) 422-123 

'•■O'Wolf Eiver 423-424 

" Sutton 424 

\ Ingram 424-425 

VBlack Gilliflower 425 

Lady 426 

Ea^y and fall varieties 426-441 

\ Oldenburg (Duchess) 426-427 

Wealthy 427-428 

Yellow Transparent 428 

^ Twenty Ounce 429 

, ^Gravenstein 429-430 

Mcintosh 430-431 

Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek) . . 431-432 

\ Fameuse (Snow) 432-433 

Williams (Williams Early ^ed, Williams 

. Favorite) 433 

*«enoni 433-434 

\ Bonum (Magnum Bonum) 434-435 

Bed Astrachan 435 

\, Early Ripe 435-436 

Alexander 436 

^Starr 436-437 

Red June, (Carolina Red June, Carolina June, 

Carolina Red) 437-438 

Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) .... 438 

Fall Pippin 439 

Status of commercial varieties 441-449 

Age varieties begin to bear 449-451 

Relative productivity of varieties in full bearing . 451-452 
Relative hardiness of commercial varieties . . . 452-453 

Varieties in greatest demand 453-454 

Export varieties 454 

Varieties for the home orchards 454-457 

Index 459 



LIST OF PLATES 

PLA'ra I. — Typical western New York scene. Full bearing 

trees forty to fifty years of age Frontispiece ^ 

FACING 
PAGE 

Plate II. — Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20 '■" 

Plate III. — A typical commercial apple orchard in the 
Missouri Valley, Kansas. A fifteen-year-old Newtown 
orchard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. Red ^ 

Astrachan orchard in Delaware 38 

Plate IV. — Looking across the floor of the Wenatchee Val- 
ley at Cashmere, Washington 58 

Plate V. — View of the Hood Eiver Valley fruit section . 70 ^ 

Plate VI. — King apples growing in Annapolis Valley, 

Nova Scotia 88 "'" 

Plate VII. — A young irrigated orchard in the Bitter Root 
Valley of Montana, showing the clean cultivation 
formerly practiced in the Northwest 108 ^-^ 

Plate VIII. — Eight-foot disk in operation in the Rogue 
River Valley, Oregon. Spring-tooth harl-ow in use in 
a northwest orchard 130''" 

Plate IX. — Weeder in use in a Hood River orchard. Type 

of float commonly used at Hood River after cultivation 152 "-"^ 

Plate X. — Irrigating five-year-old Winesap trees in the 

Yakima Valley 174 ^ 

Plate XL — Insect pests of the apple 190 

Plate XIL— San Jose scale 208.- 

Plate XIII. — Insect enemies of the apple 220 

xxi 



xxii List of Plates 

VAOIKG 
^ PAGE 

Plate XIV.— The woolly aphis 234^ 

Plate XV. — The tent caterpillar. Rosy apple aphis . . 246 ^ 

Plate XVI. — Diseases of the apple 260 ^^ 

Plate XVII. — This tree has produced as high as 20 bar- 
rels of fine fruit in one season and averages about 10 
barrels a year 274f^ 

Plate XVIII. — Showing method of picking practiced in 

Virginia 292^ 

Plate XIX.— Packing the fruit 306^ 

Plate XX. — Sizing and grading machines 326'^ 

Plate XXI — A Baldwin tree near Paonia, Colorado . . 346 ^ 

Plate XXII. — A typical yellow Newtown orchard in the 

Watsonville, California, district 368^ 

Plate XXIII. — Seven-year-old Spitzenburg orchard in the 

Northwest 390^'" 

Plate XXIV. — A Nebraska orchard of Missouri Pippin 
trees 418 



THE COiMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 
OF NORTH AMERICA 

CHAPTER I 

IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY OF THE APPLE 
INDUSTRY 

The object of this work is to deal particularly with 
the commercial phases of the apple-growing industry with 
reference to: (1) Distribution of important commercial 
plantings under which heading will be discussed the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of various regions; (2) eco- 
nomic problems such as cost of production and marketing ; 
(3) scientific cultural methods. 

In presenting the subject, attention is first given to 
the geography of commercial apple-growing in the United 
States and competing foreign countries. It is important 
to know not only where commercial apples are grown but 
also the cultural methods employed in different regions. 
The wide distribution of apple plantings in the United 
States and the extreme variation in the character of the 
orchards makes it difficult for one to determine the rela- 
tive importance of any region, much less to have a definite 
conception of the conditions which prevail in remote dis- 
tricts. 

Few agricultural enterprises have experienced the 
vicissitudes which seem inherent in the frui^-growing in- 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



1 



dustry. No small factor in bringing about the changing 
fortunes of the apple-growers has been a lack of definite 
information regarding the status of the industry in com- 
peting regions Temporary high prices determined in a 
large measure the rate of planting in most sections. 
Census figures giving agricultural, but not commercial, 
production of apples, have been used in forecasting cycles 
of either over- or under-planting. In census figures 
no line was drawn between commercial and agricultural 
production. Many times when the agricultural produc- 
tion was decreasing, the commercial production, or that 
portion of the crop which reaches the market and affects 
prices, was actually increasing, in some instances very 
materially. A sharp line must, therefore, be drawn be- 
tween commercial and non-commercial production if we 
are to make a correct analysis of the industry and view 
the future in the proper light. 

It has been only within comparatively recent years that 
commercial apple-growing in the United States has ex- 
perienced such a very noticeable change from what might 
be termed a local, home orchard or semi-commercial enter- 
prise into a highly specialized and scientific industry of 
national proportions, centralized in certain favored local- 
ities, involving intensive and technical methods of culture, 
and necessitating very complex and intricate methods of 
distribution and marketing. In other words, the apple 
crop has been taken from the list of general farm products 
and has been placed among the foremost specialized crops. 
In 1919 the apple crop of the United States was valued 
at $275,463,000. It ordinarily ranks about ninth in the 
list of farm crops, being exceeded in total value only by 
wheat, oats, cotton, com, potatoes, barley, hay and tobacco. 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 3 

Some idea of the relative importance of the apple crop 
may be obtained by a study of the following table : 

Table I. — Estimated Value of Important Crops of the 
United States, Based on Five- Year Average 1914r-1918 

Corn $2,634,804,000 

Wheat 1,198,737,000 

Hay 1,132,276,000 

Cotton 1,097,039,000 

Oats 773,752,000 

Potatoes 372,239,000 

Tobacco 208,426,000 

Apples 184,774,000 

DECLINE OF FARM ORCHAKDS 

At present commercial apples can be grown successfully 
only when scientific and intensive cultural methods are 
employed. The farmer can no longer give his orchard in- 
different care and expect to compete with the commercial 
grower. With the advent of new districts, competition 
has necessitated the adoption of improved methods mark- 
ing the decline of the farm orchard and the corresponding 
rise in importance of specialized commercial plantings. 

About 1850, apple-growing began to assume important 
commercial proportions, but for many years the farm 
orchards remained an important factor. The demand for 
apples in the towns and cities was at first supplied from 
the farm orchards in adjacent territory. No great effort 
was made to locate distant markets and in years of heavy 
production most of the crops would remain on the farm. 
About 1860 certain highly productive sections of western 
New York demonstrated their superiority in producing 
high quality fruit and this fruit outsold that from other 
districts. These inherent advantages overcame the dis- 



4 The Commercial Apple Industry 

tance from market so that the center of commercial apple 
production was established and has remained in western 
New York. (See Plate 1.) 

Despite the rapid centralization of commercial plantings 
in more favored regions, the apple is adapted to a wide 
variation of soil and climatic conditions, and is widely cul- 
tivated throughout the United States. A great many- 
farms produce a few more apples than are needed at home. 
Many of these go to waste, but sometimes the surplus is 
pressed into cider, used for other by-products, or in some 
quantity finds its way into commercial channels during the 
years when prices warrant. Just how great a part the 
last factor plays in the commercial apple industry is diffi- 
cult to determine, but obviously in the aggregate it is of 
no little importance. Particularly is this true throughout 
such states as Iowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania where 
apples from farm orchards are hauled to nearby towns and 
supply the market which might otherwise exist for the 
so-called " strictly " commercial crop. The line of dis- 
tinction between commercial and non-commercial produc- 
tion is being more and more closely drawn, however, so 
that the strictly commercial crop stands out in sharp con- 
trast. 

Practically speaking, the spraying operation gives rise 
to one of the first sharp distinctions between commercial 
and non-commercial orchards. Insect pests and diseases 
have exacted a heavy toll from unsprayed orchards and 
to-day thousands of acres of farm orchards, especially east 
of the Mississippi Eiver and in such states as Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio and Kentucky are slowly dying out. When 
it is known that more than 90 per cent of the orchards in 
some states have never been sprayed, the wide disparage- 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 



Table II. — Average Commercul and Average Total Produc- 
tion OF Apples in United States for Four Years. 
(1916-1919) 



state 


Commercial 
Crop 
Bbls. 


Total Crop 
Bbls. 


Percentage of 
total crop 
which is 










commercial 


1. Washington . . . . 


5,062,000 


( 2) 


L 6,431,000 


78 


2. New York . 






4,132,000 


( 1) 


9,106,000 


45 


3. Virginia . . 






1,785,000 


( 4) 


3,758,000 


45 


4. California 






1,246,000 


( 6) 


2,435,000 


51 


5. Michigan 






1,133,000 


( 5) 


2,531,000 


44 


6. Illinois . . 






1,045,000 


(10) 


1,731,000 


60 


7. Pennsylvania 






988,000 


( 3) 


4,526,000 


22 


8. Missouri . . 






916,000 


( 8) 


2,008,000 


46 


9. West Virginia 






892,000 


( 9) 


1,784,000 


50 


10. Oregon . , 






886,000 


(U) 


1,430,000 


62 


11. Colorado . . 






683,000 


(21) 


851,000 


80 


12. Ohio . . . 






629,000 


( 7) 


2,014,000 


31 


13. Idaho . . . 






589,000 


(20) 


844,000 


70 


14. Kansas 






500,000 


(25) 


70.1,000 


71 


15. Now Jersey . 






493,000 


(23) 


757,000 


65 


16. Arkansas 






476,000 


(22) 


809,000 


59 


17. Maine . . . 






441,000 


(12) 


1,334,000 


33 


18. Massachusetts . 






307,000 


(17) 


940,000 


33 _ 


19. Indiana . . 






"■ 304,000 


(16) 


974,000 


31 


1^0 Maryland . . 






279,000 


(24) 


757,000 


35 


21. Vermont . . 






207,000 


(26) 


588,000 


35 


22. North Carolina 






186,000 


(13) 


1,232,000 


15 


23. Iowa .... 






182,000 


(18) 


897,000 


22 


24. Delaware . . 






169,000 


(36) 


224,000 


75 


25. Nebraska . . 






164,000 


(32) 


398,000 


44 


26. Tennessee . . 






161.000 


(15) 


1,173,000 


14 


27. New Hampshire 






157.000 


(29) 


441,000 


36 


28. New Mexico 






156.000 


(35) 


298,000 


52 


29. ITtah .... 






123,000 


(.37) 


214,000 


58 


30. Connecticut . . 






117,000 


(28) 


446,000 


23 


31. Wisconsin . . 






117,000 


(19) 


883.000 


13 


32. Kentucky . . 






115,000 


(14) 


1,208,000 


10 


33. Georgia . . . 






101,000 


(27) 


474.000 


21 


34. Montana . . . 






86,000 


(34) 


324,000 


27 


35. Minnesota 






51,000 


(30) 


423,000 


12 


36. Oklahoma . . 






35,000 


(33) 


344,000 


10 


37. Texas .... 






24,000 


(38) 


144,000 


17 


38. Rhode Island . 






22,000 


(40) 


78,000 


28 


39. Alabama . . . 






20,000 


(31) 


404,000 


5 


40. Arizona . . . 






16.000 


(41) 


46,000 


35 


41. South Dakota . 






4,000 


(30) 


105,000 


4 


U. S 


. 




25,001,000 


56,502,000 


44 



1 Figures in parentheses rank states in order of importance in total pro- 
duction. 



The Com,mercial Apple Industry 



.Ml 
'^1 



ment between the agricultural and the commercial crop 
not surprising. 

Table II shows the average agricultural and commer- 
cial apple production in the different states for the period 
1916-1919 inclusive. It will be seen that of an average 
total production of approximately 56,000,000 barrels, only 
25,000,000 are commercial. In other words, about 44 
per cent of the total production during this period reached 
commercial channels. 

Apples used for by-products are not included in the com- 
mercial crop. Allowing for this factor, it would still ap- 
pear that from 40 to 45 per cent of our total apple crop 
is either consumed in the county where grown or goes to 
waste. 

CENTRALIZED PLANTINGS IN FAVORED REGIONS 

The centralization of commercial plantings in favored 
regions has been an interesting process. The most notable 
feature in the development of the apple industry has been 
the rapidly increasing commercial crop from western 
states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Cali- 
fornia and Colorado. Twenty years ago commercial pro- 
duction in these states, with the exception of California, 
was practically negligible. To-day over 40 per cent of 
the commercial apple crop of the United States is grown 
in the Far West and at no distant date western production 
may represent one-half of this total. Although far from 
the centers of population and markets, millions of dollars 
have been expended in the development of apple orchards 
in the irrigated valleys of far western states. Heavy 
yields and fine market quality have combined to over- 
come the disadvantages of long shipments to market. 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 7 

Along with the development of the commercial apple 
industry there has been built up, and particularly in 
recent years, extensive machinery for the handling, dis- 
tributing and marketing of apples. Sectional lines have 
been broken down and this product has become distinctly 
a national and even international commodity of exchange. 
Thousands of cars of this fruit move across the entire 
continent and large cargoes are exported to Europe, Aus- 
tralia and South America. J^ew and interesting relations 
between the producer and consumer have been established 
in an intricate system of marketing. Competition in the 
production of high quality fruit has worked great changes 
in cultural methods. Scientific investigation has thrown 
light on many phases of the industry, all of which will 
require separate treatment. 

OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLE INDUSTRY 

Apple production does not respond quickly to supply 
and demand, and for this reason there tends to be less 
stability in the matter of prices than with other products. 
It requires several years for trees to come into full bearing, 
and over-production as the result of excessive planting is 
not felt for a considerable period. If the production of 
potatoes, wheat or oats exceeds the demand, the land can 
be put in other crops. But when it has required ten or 
fifteen years, and much expense, to bring an apple or- 
chard to bearing, the owner is loath to pull out his trees 
and will usually wait several years in the hope that price 
and production will become adjusted. 

The history of apple production in the United States 
has run in cycles. In the middle of the past century, 
when apples first began to be grown commercially, prices 



8 The Commercial Apple Industry 

were good. During the decade 1865 to 18Y5, prices con- 
tinued high, and during the period 1850 to 1875 over half 
of the present bearing orchards in western New York 
were set. Over-production began to be felt in about 1880. 
!From this time on commercial production increased and 
prices fell until 1896, when the 76,000,000 barrel crop 
(agricultural) was grown and the industry reached low 
price ebb. 

From 1890 to 1896 many growers pulled out their trees, 
confident that the good prices would never return. Very 
little planting was undertaken in this period. In about 
fifteen years prices began to climb back until the crest of 
another wave was reached between 1907 and 1911. As 
prices improved, beginning in 1900 and continuing up 
until 1908-9, there occurred another heavy planting pe- 
riod which assumed the proportions of a boom in many 
western states. It was during this period that most of 
the acreage in such box-apple sections as Yakima, Wen- 
atchee. Hood River, southern Idaho and Colorado, which 
in 1919 produced nearly half of the commercial apples 
in the United States, was set. Five consecutive failures 
in the Ozark, Missouri, crop, from frost-injury, contributed 
to this inflation by creating a strong demand for northwest 
fruit in a territory ordinarily supplied. 

The productiveness of such valleys as the Yakima and 
Wenatchee in Washington was phenomenal. Trees were 
young and free from disease, the yields on bearing 
trees were unusual and the returns to the acre were far 
greater than had been thought possible from any com- 
mercial orchard. Gross sales sometimes exceeded $2,000 
an acre and in some instances orchards sold for as high as 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 9 

$3,500 an acre. The price for raw land reached $500 
to $1,000 an acre. A reaction in prices followed this 
period of heavy planting and the country is just now 
recovering from the effects of the boom. 

While once suffering from inflation, such districts as 
Yakima, Hood River, Wenatchee and other well known 
valleys have been and will remain as centers of production. 
Unfortunately, however, a large acreage of land unsuited 
to commercial production was set to trees and exploited 
as apple land, with disastrous results to investors. 
Projects including thousands of acres of land were laid 
out and planted to trees in some states only to fall into 
entire neglect. Thus far there has never been any con- 
certed movement toward actually pulling out trees. How- 
ever, to the same effect, many trees receive little or in- 
different care and never attain full commercial bearing. 
This is the principle which tends to limit production. 
Growers slip behind, omit cultivation and spraying and 
other necessary cultural operations, with the result that 
their orchards will not produce commercial fruit. It is 
for this reason that census figures, giving mere number of 
trees, are very often misleading and need careful analysis 
without which the industry may be led into periods of 
over- and under-planting. 

Favorable factors. 

It is often asked by those who contemplate setting an 
apple orchard whether it will be a good business proposi- 
tion or whether there will be over-production in the years 
to come. A definite reply is impossible. However, a 
careful study of these points, in the light of present facts 



10 The Commercial Apple Industry 

and conditions, leads to certain probabilities. The fol- 
lowing factors are favorable to the future of the apple 
industry. 

1. Increase in population. 

The first point to be considered is the probable increase 
or decrease in consumption. There may be periods of 
very heavy planting, but if population and demand in- 
crease proportionately, an equilibrium is maintained. 
Obviously the most favorable factor in the outlook is the 
rapid normal increase in the population of the United 
States. If the same rate of increase continues, in 1930 
there will be 130,000,000 people, while in 1940, when 
many of the apple orchards not yet in bearing will reach 
their highest productivity, there will be 165,000,000 peo- 
ple. If the same rate of increase continues until 1950, 
there will be 210,000,000. Rate of increase in population 
depends, of course, on a number of factors. 

2. Movement to the city. 

The important factor in the increase in population is 
that there is a constantly increasing percentage living in 
cities and towns. For example, in 1790 96 per cent of 
the inhabitants lived on farms and only 4 per cent lived 
in towns and did not raise the food they consumed ; in 
1860 84 per cent lived on farms and 16 per cent in 
towns; in 1880 44 per cent on farms and 56 per cent in 
towns; in 1900 35 per cent on farms and 65 per cent in 
towns and in 1910 30 per cent on farms and 70 per cent 
in tov^rns. The drift towards the city is distinctly in the 
orchardist's favor. In fact, this would seem to be the 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 11 

most favorable of all factors in the outlook of the apple 
industry and a potent influence against over-production. 

3. Develop^ient of foreign market. 

In past years varying quantities, seldom exceeding two 
million barrels of the best apples, were exported annually. 
There are great possibilities in the export trade, not only 
in those countries which at the present time consume large 
quantities of American apples, but also in undeveloped 
foreign markets. South America is as yet a market 
largely undeveloped. 

At present, the United States produces the larger part 
of the world's commercial apple crop. Most of this is 
consumed at home. In addition, foreign fruit is im- 
ported to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars 
from coiuitries which do not consume apples except in a 
very limited quantity. The apple is one of the least 
perishable and at the same time one of the most popular 
fruits, once a demand is stimulated. At present Eng- 
land is the leading export market. Other north European 
countries consume American apples in lesser quantities. 
When it is considered that in the face of an abundance of 
other fresh fruits and food stuffs the people of the United 
States consume over 20,000,000 barrels of commercial 
apples and export only about 2,000,000 barrels annually, 
the possibilities of export can be more fully appreciated, 
particularly as the European countries with their millions 
of population produce commercial apples only in limited 
quantities. It must be remembered, however, that by the 
time a package of high-grade apples reaches the European 
market, the price is out of the reach of such classes as in 
this country consume much of our own commercial crop. 



12 The Commercial Apple Industry 

4. Education and advertising. 

There is no doubt that consumption of high-grade fruit 
has been greatlv stimulated in recent years by judicious 
advertising. This is particularly true of the northwest 
apples. Advertising and educational campaigns will con- 
tinue to increase consumption. The improved quality of 
commercial apples is unquestionably stimulating the de- 
mand for this fruit among all classes. The' fruit-stand 
has played no small part in creating this demand by dis- 
playing and familiarizing the people of the cities with 
the superb quality of certain high-grade brands and va- 
rieties of apples. A large portion of the northwest boxed 
apple crop is retailed an apple at a time. As the con- 
suming public becomes more and more familiar with 
high quality apples, the demand for this fruit becomes 
more and more pronounced. 

5. Transportation. 

The success of commercial apple-growing in various 
regions is greatly affected by transportation and railroad 
facilities. Some of the more southern districts, for ex- 
ample, have poor transportation facilities and orchards 
are very often located in hilly sections where hauling the 
fruit to the shipping point represents one of the principal 
costs of production. With improved roads and shipping 
facilities, distance from market and inaccessibility will 
be largely overcome. 

6. Distribution. 

With the improved storage facilities and the progress 
already made in distribution, it is not surprising that the 
domestic markets have been able to absorb the increasinjr 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 13 

commercial apple crop. Should the apple-grower be able 
to duplicate even in part the distributing methods used 
in the citrus industry, it becomes apparent that he might 
share in the increased demand for high-grade fruit. The 
sale of oranges has increased in recent years more rap- 
idly than population. Many potential consiuning centers 
are represented in towns which can no longer depend on 
good apples from nearby farms, but are as yet scarcely 
touched by the present system of distribution. These 
will eventually be supplied and will absorb a large amount 
of high-grade fruit, even though at the present time a 
demand for such a product seems relatively slight. 

Storage facilities now established in all large consuming 
centers have played a most important part in developing 
city trade. The extension of storage facilities and better 
methods of distribution represent one of the favorable 
factors in the outlook for the commercial apple industry. 

7. Improved cultural methods. 

There has been a great improvement in every phase of 
orchard management. Improved methods of spraying, 
pruning, cultivating, and the like have made possible the 
production of high-grade fruit. Orchard management 
has probably reached its highest development in the 
Northwest. Careful orchard management is expensive, 
but there is compensation in increased yield, which is the 
big factor in reducing cost production a unit. The com- 
mercial grower has been able to produce high-grade fruit 
economically, sell it at good prices and outstrip his more 
careless neighbor or the producer of inferior apples. In 
other words, keen competition is forcing the home or- 
chard and semi-commercial fruit off the market. 



14 The Commercial Apple Industry 

8. Increase in the use of by-products. i 

' One of the most favorable factors in the outlook of 
apple production is the increasing importance and use of 
apple by-products. It is only in recent years that the 
canned apple industry assumed great importance. Dried 
apples are more in demand than before. With the advent 
of prohibition, the demand for apple juice products is 
increasing greatly. Jellies, apple-butter and similar prod- 
ucts are being manufactured in increasing quantities. 
The apples required in the manufacture of these by- 
products will remove from the market much of the low- 
grade fruit. Enormous by-product plants have been built 
in the heart of the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the 
Aliddle Atlantic states, in western New York, in the Ya- 
kima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington and in fact in 
all important apple regions. Numerous breweries and dis- 
tilleries have been converted into plants for the production 
of apple bv-products. 

/ 

9. Future production. 

It is important to note, in connection with possible 
future production, that there has been little concerted ap- 
ple planting in any part of the United States since 1910. 
This lack of planting can not fail to have effect on the 
production of the next two decades. In speculating on 
future production, one instinctively turns to New York 
State, which until very recently was credited with one- 
fourth of the normal commercial apple production of the 
United States. In the Hudson Valley are many new or- 
chards which will increase materially the production from 
this region. However, in western N^w York, which is 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 15 

responsible for the bulk of jSTew York apple production, 
the average bearing orchard is over forty years of age. 
Although they have had a remarkable record for longevity, 
production can not be maintained indefinitely on these 
old orchards which were for the most part planted in the 
sixties and seventies of the preceding century. Therefore, 
unless planting proceeds much more rapidly than in the 
past, no increase and in fact a possible decrease in pro- 
duction can be expected from western New York. 

New England apple orchards have been going back 
rapidly the past several years. As a matter of fact, no- 
where in the eastern states with the exception of the Shen- 
andoah-Cumberland region, in New Jersey and Delaware, 
does there seem likely to be any material increase in 
production. It is a notable fact that a great decrease has 
occurred in the number of apple trees all through the 
Middle West and although a revival of interest is serving 
to hold production at its present point, it does not seem 
that on the whole this section of the United States will 
show an increased apple production in the near future. 

The Pacific Northwest will unquestionably show an 
increased production during the next several years and 
will be an increasingly important factor in the commercial 
apple situation. While the Northwest will continue to 
ship more and more cars of apples, there will be no such 
relative increase in production as that which occurred in 
the past ten years. 

Unfavorable factors. 

To mistake hopes for facts in the determination to 
see only the favorable side, regardless of true conditions, 
has been too frequent. Production in the western 



16 The Commercial Apple Industry 

states has not yet reached its maximum. Twenty-six 
per cent of the new planting in the decade 1900 to 1910 
was in the Pacific Northwest. This region will have a 
normal increase in production of high quality fruit. It is, 
to a great extent, commercial, and most of it will reach 
eastern markets. This will unquestionably be the biggest 
factor in the apple problem. Even to-day the average ap- 
ple-grower does not seem to appreciate the importance of 
the western crop which has gTown so rapidly that it has 
been difiicult to keep fully informed as to the normal size. 

1. Increased commercial crop. 

It is very evident that there has been an increase in the 
strictly commercial apple crop of the United States, census 
figures to the contrary notwithstanding. It is important 
to be on guard against statistics and figures showing de- 
creases in acreage. The fraction of the crop which reaches 
commercial channels is of the greatest importance. Ordi- 
narily the commercial crop is estimated at approximately 
40 per cent of the total production. Commercial apples 
are defined to include only that portion of the crop which 
reaches strictly commercial channels. All fruit left or 
eaten on the farm, wasted or used for by-products, was not 
considered as commercial. The agricultural crop may de- 
crease, but if there is a greater portion of it directed into 
commercial channels, the decrease may be more than offset 
by the increasing commercial crop. In many sections the 
commercial crop is and has been increasing rapidly during 
the past few years. 

Even with the expected increase in population and the 
better distribution discussed as favorable factors, years 
are likely to occur when bumper crops will cause prices to 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 17 

fall as low as the cost of production. However, unless 
there is a decided tendency towards new planting, it seems 
improbable that these years will be successive or very fre- 
quent. There should always be a margin of safety and 
these lean years should be considered by prospective apple- 
growers. 

2. Poor outlook for unfavored region. 

One of the principal factors in lowering cost of produc- 
tion is increased yields. In other words, high yielding sec- 
tions have a distinct advantage and sometimes increased 
cost of production actually reacts in their favor by elim- 
inating less favored regions, and thereby limiting competi- 
tion. The great increase in the cost of labor and material 
has made it necessary to receive a price for fruit consider- 
ably in advance of that required formerly to pay the costs 
and leave a profit. Many sections can overcome these in- 
creased costs by increasing yields and better management. 
Less favored districts in so-called marginal regions will be 
the first to sufi'er. The grower who has good yields and 
manages well will ordinarily be successful. 

3. Danger from boom development. 

During a period of high prices for fruit, there will al- 
ways be danger of land-selling booms. Promoters will buy 
up large tracts of land, set them to trees and then en- 
deavor to unload on unsuspecting city men and farmers 
not familiar with fruit-growing. Needless to say, the 
growth of the industry by such methods is unhealthy and 
honest and intelligent growers and horticulturists should 
combat such efforts with merciless publicity. This is not 



18 The Commercial Apple Industry 

intended to discourage legitimate investments. Well se- 
lected farms have been known to pay for themselves in a 
year. Syndicate farming schemes, however, are always 
questionable. They sound well, but they seldom work out. 
Attempts of this kind were numerous a few years ago, were 
largely discontinued for a time, but may revive following 
high price years. After a few years of inactivity, " pro- 
moters " will appear to prey on a new class of investors. 
Careful investigation on the part of investors should enable 
them to determine which orchards were set to produce fruit 
and which were set for speculation. By curbing this spec- 
ulative influence, a long step will be taken towards pre- 
venting over-planting. 

Among the favorable factors mentioned in the forego- 
ing paragraphs are the extension of foreign markets and 
the increase in exportations to meet this demand. In pass- 
ing, one should not fail to note that in a certain part of the 
world there are being developed important apple-produc- 
ing regions. Notable among these is Tasmania, which has 
produced as many as 2,000,000 cases of commercial ap- 
ples and exported as many as 800,000 cases (bushels) to 
England in one year. Canada will be an increasingly im- 
portant factor in the apple industry. Many localities are 
suitable for apple-growing in this country and new regions 
are constantly being developed. 

4. Competition with citrus fruit. 

In discussing the outlook for the apple industry, some 
consideration must be given to its relative status in com- 
parison with the rapidly growing citrus fruit industry. 
In 1896, when one of the largest apple crops in the his- 
tory of the industry was harvested, citrus fruit-growing in 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 19 

the United States was comparatively in its infancy. Since 
1896, citrus production has doubled and trebled in size 
until during the year 1917 approximately 100,000 carloads 
of citrus fruits were produced and sold in the United 
States. Of these, 54,000 carloads were grown in Cali- 
fornia alone ; the remainder largely in Florida. It is dif- 
ficult definitely to establish the significance of this growth 
in relation to the apple industry. In the first place, cit- 
rus fruits can be grown only within comparatively small 
areas and their production is thereby limited. Citrus- 
growers have perfected a better system of distribution and 
have placed their products in a greater number of markets. 
This competition may check apple consumption, but on the 
whole, it seems to indicate that the possibilities of apple 
distribution have not been as well recognized as they might 
have been. Citrus production has increased much more 
rapidly than population and yet distributing agencies have 
sought out markets, stimulated demand and have disposed 
of their vastly increased product in most instances at a 
profit. 

Conclusions. 

On the whole, although our commercial apple produc- 
tion may increase perceptibly in the next few years, due 
principally to increased production from such regions as 
the Pacific JSTorthwest and the Shenandoah-Cumberland, 
there will be no such relative increases as in the period 
from 1905 to 1920. 

The population is increasing, with a resulting demand 
for more fruit. The extension of foreign markets, better 
means of distribution and wider uses of the apple, com- 
bine in giving a promising outlook for the apple industry. 



20 The Commercial Apple Industry 



4 



There seems no reason to believe that over a period of 
years, taking the good with the bad, apples will make any 
materially better returns than many other farm crops ; 
yet apple-growing is a specialized industry and will always 
afford exceptional opportunity for individual effort. 

HISTOEY OF COMMERCIAL APPLE-GROWING IN THE 
UNITED STATES 

The cultivated apple comes to us from prehistoric time. 
While several species of native crab-apples were growing 
wild in the forests at the time of the discovery of this 
country, these species have never attained commercial im- 
portance. Practically all the commercial varieties are 
from the Pyrus Malus stock, which is a native of southwest 
Asia and adjacent Europe and which has been cultivated 
since time immemorial. Crab-apples came chiefly from 
Pyrus baccata, or Siberian crab, which comes from the 
more northern and eastern parts of Asia. 

At present the apple is the most widely cultivated and 
important fruit in existence, being grown in practically 
every country and in every climate. It has reached its 
greatest cultural development in the United States, which 
is the principal apple-producing country in the world. 

It is interesting to know that apple-culture in this coun- 
try developed almost simultaneously with the settling of 
the early colonies. Early records show that apple trees 
were being grown in New England within a few years after 
the founding of the Plymouth colony. In 1648 Governor 
Endicott exchanged with Wm. Trask 500 apple trees of 
three years' growth for 200 acres of land. Other frag- 
mentary information taken from the history of the New 
England settlements indicates that apples were being 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 21 

grown in that region as early as 1650, and that numerous 
phiDtings there and elsewhere had been made by 1700. 
xVniong the early varieties mentioned were Pearmain, Rus- 
setin, Long Apple and Kreton Pippins. 

The two leading apple regions in New York State, the 
Hudson Valley and western New York or Lake Shore 
region, were recognized in the early development of the 
apple industry in New York. It appears in the early 
history of the Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley that 
apple trees were planted near Kinderhook not long after 
1700. Plantings also occurred in Long Island at about 
the same date. 

Pioneers report apple plantings in western New York as 
early as 1750. It must be remembered that this region 
was in a much more primitive state of development at this 
time than the New England and Hudson Valley sections. 
Legendary history suggests that apple seeds preceded the 
progress of civilization into western New York and, falling 
into the hands of Indian tribes, notably the Senecas and 
Cayugas, were scattered throughout this part of the state. 
General Sullivan is reported to have found bearing apple 
trees laden with fruit near Seneca Lake as early as 1779. 

It must not be thought that these early plantings were of 
commercial importance. They were isolated, small in ex- 
tent, but nevertheless represented interesting landmarks in 
the development of apple-culture in this country. Com- 
mercial apple-growing in New York really dates back to 
about 1860. Prior to this time A. J. Downing, who was 
bom in 1802 and later conducted a nursery at Newburgh, 
had been a very important and influencing factor in the 
development of the apple industry in the Hudson Valley 
region. A. J". Downing died in 1852 after having pub- 



X 



23 The Commercial Apple Industry 

lished in 1845 his " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America." 
Charles Downiuc;, his brother, remained a leading author- 
ity on apple varieties and apple-growing until 1885. 

In 1840 George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry started 
the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, N^ew York. Barry- 
was one of the pioneers in the apple industry and had much 
to do in making western New York the leading nursery 
and apple-growing region. 

Jonathan Chapman, or Johnny Appleseed, the name by 
which he was more commonly known, had much to do with 
the spread of the apple westward from New York. Chap- 
man was an eccentric character. It seems that he spent 
much of the first half of the nineteenth century in roaming 
through Ohio and Indiana, at that time a wild undeveloped 
country. By carrying apple seeds about with him and 
sowing them broadcast, he effected a wide extension in 
apple plantings throughout this region. Being of an in- 
tense religious nature, his life and activities have a roman- 
tic interest which have been the subject of much writing. 
His descendants are actively interested apple-growers in 
southern Ohio to-day. 

From the standpoint of historic interest, few regions ex- 
cel the Piedmont of Virginia. Although the Newtown ap- 
ple originated on Long Island, it was later introduced into 
Albemarle County, Virginia, early in the eighteenth cen- 
tury and has been prominently identified with the develop- 
ment of the apple industry in this region, under the name 
of Albemarle Pippin. Albemarle Pippins were exported 
to England from Virginia as early as 1759. Thomas Jef- 
ferson was cultivating this variety at Monticello, his coun- 
try place in Virginia, before the Revolution. It has been 
authentically stated that so pleased was Queen Victoria 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 23 

with several barrels of Virginia Albemarle Pippins pre- 
sented to her during the first year of her reigii by the late 
Arthur Stevenson, American minister to England, that she 
caused the import tax on apples to be removed. Since that 
time apple exportations to England have rapidly increased. 

While certain species of wild crabs are native to the 
prairie states and doubtless isolated plantings occurred in 
this region prior to the Civil War, it was after 1860, at 
the time of the influx of many early pioneers, that apple 
trees were brought into the country west of the Mississippi 
Eiver. The apple industry in this section did not begin to 
assume commercial importance until the eighties and the 
decade following. It was at this time that many of the 
older orchards were planted in the Ozarks, Missouri River 
region and southern Illinois. Good prices for apples in 
the late eighties stimulated planting and it was during the 
nineties that the heavy commercial apple plantings were 
made in the Middle West. 

The rapidly increasing importance of the western apple 
regions attracts considerable attention to the history and 
development of apple culture of the Ear West. Probably 
the first apple trees on the Pacific Coast were grown at 
Fort Vancouver, W^ashington, where employees of the 
Hudson Bay Company are reported to have planted seeds, 
carried from England, as early in 1825. 

The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section of California 
is the oldest commercial apple region in the Far West. 
The agricultural history of this region dates back to about 
1820 when Don Antonia Maria Castro applied to the gov- 
ernment of Spain for a grant of land along the Pajaro 
River, which he called Vega del Rio del Pajaro. Several 
large land grants were given to the Spanish Dons during 



24 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the next twenty years, but all were used for stock- 
raising. 

In 1853 the first apple orchard planted by an American 
in this region was set out on the Jesse D. Carr place, now 
the Sillman homestead. This orchard was about two acres 
in extent and contained a mixture of fruit. Some of 
these trees are still in bearing. The second apple orchard 
in the Pajaro Valley was planted by Wm. F. White in 
1854. These first two plantings were home orchards. 
The first commercial orchards in the Pajaro Valley were 
set out by Isaac Williams and Judge R. F. Peckman in 
1858. One planted thirteen acres and the other six acres. 
The early varieties grown were Smith's Cider, Rhode Is- 
land Greening, Gravenstein, I^ewtown Pippin and Belle- 
flower. The first shipment of apples from the Pajaro Val- 
ley was made in 1867 by Isaac Williams who sold his fruit 
in San Francisco. Increased demand for fruit stimulated 
apple planting and a large number of the present orchards 
were set out in the period between 1880 and 1900. 

The output of the Watsonville section was assuming 
commercial proportions many years before such sections as 
the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in the ^Northwest had 
come into prominence. 

It is generally thought that the oldest apple orchards in 
the Yakima Valley were planted about 1875 to 1876. 
Near Fort Simcoe, twenty-seven miles south of North 
Yakima, stands an orchard planted by an Indian, Klickitat 
Peter, in 1877. This is probably the oldest apple planting 
in what was later destined to become one of the premier 
apple-growing regions. 

In 1888 there were a few family orchards in the Yakima 
district, but probably the first commercial planting of 



J 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 25 

fruit-trees in Yakima was made in 1888 by H. J. Bicknell, 
in what is known as Parker Bottom. In the spring of 
1889, Fred Thompson set out in the same locality what was 
probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley. 
The whole planting consisted of ten acres and included 
three acres of prunes, three acres of peaches, three acres 
of Ben Davis apples and one acre of pears. 

In 1888 and 1889 two irrigation companies, one to un- 
dertake the Selah project and the other what is now the 
Sunnyside Government project, were organized. At this 
time a few express shipments of fresh fruit had been sent 
to the coast from the small home orchards. 

In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the Yakima 
Valley probably did not exceed twenty-five cars. Fruit 
was layer packed, but not wrapped, the old sixty-pound 
box being in common use. In 1896 Fred Thompson 
shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably the 
first car of fruit from this region to be sold east of the 
Mississippi Eiver. It was in 1894 that the apple planting 
period really began, and the most extensive plantings were 
made in the years 1900 to 1908. 

The history and development of the Wenatchee Valley, 
which is probably the most intensive apple region in the 
country, was even more recent than the development of 
the Yakima Valley. The date of the first apple plantings 
in Wenatchee is given by some as 1873, others 1876. The 
first fruit-trees were set out by Miller Brothers who later 
established the first irrigating ditch in this region in 1883. 

Practically the entire Wenatchee Valley was a barren 
waste until 1896 when the Gunn ditch was built to water 
600 acres of land. In 1901 W. T. Clark, coming from 
North Yakima, interested himself in the organization of 



26 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the High Line Canal, designed to water 0000 acres of or- 
chard land. This ditch was completed to Wenatchee in 
October, 1903. The completion of the High Line Canal 
marked the beginning of important orchard development 
in the Wenatchee Valley. By 1913 there were about 
20,000 acres of irrigable land under the different ditches 
established in the Wenatchee Valley. 

The Indians occupied the Grand Valley until 1880, at 
which time the history of fruit-growing in western Color- 
ado begins. In the spring of 1883 several hundred root- 
grafts were put out in the Grand Valley, only a fraction 
of which lived. The first fruit plantings were made in 
the lower lands of the Valley about 1885 or 1886. In 
1882 a farmer living at Paonia, in Delta County, a local- 
ity of lesser importance than the Grand Valley, purchased 
twenty-six trees of mixed varieties from Rochester, New 
York, at one dollar each. Of these, three survived. As 
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, principal orchard 
development occurred in Colorado after 1900. 

From this fragmentary history of apple-culture in the 
United States, it may be seen that while apple trees have 
been grown in home orchards for nearly 300 years, it has 
only been within comparatively recent years that the in- 
dustry has assumed commercial proportions. 

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION 

The apple belongs to the important genus Pyrus, of the 
Eose family (Eosacese). This genus includes the apples 
and pears. The common apple is Pynis Malus, sup- 
posed to be native to Europe and Western Temperate Asia. 
Within this species, as it is commonly broadly accepted, 
are included the commercial apples, the Paradise and 



Importance and History of the Apple Industry 27 

Doucin dwarf forms, so-called bloomless apple, and others. 
The Siberian crab is Fyrus haccata. The growth is more 
slender and wir>- than in P. MaJus, twigs and leaves not 
woolly as in that species, the fruit small, long-s1;emmed, 
and with the calyx falling away at the blossom end. Hy- 
brids occur between Pyrus Hldlus and P. haccata. Some 
of the apples known as " crabs " are only small and acrid 
fruit-forms of P. Malus. 

Several species of crab-apple are native to ISTorth Amer- 
ica. One of them is Pyrus ioeTisis, the prairie crab. It 
is not cultivated for its fruit, but the Soulard, Fluke,- and 
others are supposed to be hybrids between this species 
and Pyrus Malus. 

Some botanists separate the pears and apples into dif- 
ferent genera. Under this disposition, the pears are re- 
tained in Pyrus and the apples take the generic name 
Malus. The common apple then becomes Malus com- 
munis, and the wild or run-wild form of it in Europe is 
called M. sylvestris. 

A number of oriental species of Pyrus (Malus) are 
grown for ornament, but they need not be discussed here. 



CHAPTER II 

LEADING APPLE REGIONS OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

There has been a noticeable tendency in recent years 
towards the centralization of the commercial apple indus- 
try in a relatively few intensive regions. A glance at the 




Fig. 1.- 



The principal apple-growing regions in the United 

States. 



outline map showing the principal apple-growing regions 
reveals this. (See Fig. 1.) It is estimated that approx- 
imately 80 per cent of the total commercial apple crop of 

28 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 29 

the United States is produced in these relatively few re- 
stricted districts. In many parts of this country there is 
scarcely a farm that has not a small home orchard of apple 
trees. As has been emphasized elsewhere, production 
from these home orchards is having less and less commer- 
cial significance and interest centers in a few well-defined 
regions. 

By describing each important apple region and pointing 
out its individual characteristics, it is hoped to convey to 
the reader a mental picture of the commercial apple indus- 
try as it has been developed in these well-favored regions. 

WESTERN NEW YORK ( PLATE l) 

From the standpoint of quantity production and total 
acreage, western New York is the most important apple 
region in the United States. As early as 1860 the produc- 
tivity of this section became apparent, and the high qual- 
ity apples outsold those from other localities. Good qual- 
ity and high yields were sufficient to overcome the ad- 
vantages which many other regions may have enjoyed from 
being closer to the Atlantic seaboard cities ; and the center 
of commercial barreled apple production was established 
and has remained in western Xew York. 

Previous to 1919, one-fourth of the normal commercial 
apple crop of the United States was produced in the state 
of New York, but the Northwest now produces so many 
apples that this will probably never be true again. Heav- 
iest plantings are in Niagara, Monroe, Orleans and Wayne 
counties which border on Lake Ontario. Each of these 
counties has an apple acreage of 25,000 to 35,000 acres 
and each is capable of producing from a half to a million 
barrels of apples annually. Counties of less importance 



30 The Commercial Apple Industry 

included in this region are Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cajniga, 
Genesee, Onondaga, Oswego, Wyoming and Tompkins. 

In reality, the world's most important barreled apple 
region is largely in a ten-mile belt along Lake Ontario, ex- 
tending from Niagara Falls to Oswego, New York, a dis- 
tance of about 125 miles. In this section much of the 
present bearing acreage was planted in the late sixties 
and in the seventies of the preceding century. In other 
words, the average age of bearing orchards is over forty 
years. Probably nowhere else in this country will trees 
retain such vigor and productivity at forty to fifty years 
of age as in western Xew York. The old apple orchards 
along the ridge road from Buffalo to Rochester have with- 
stood alternate periods of neglect and care, according to 
the vicissitudes of the apple industry, and yet they remain 
in most instances vigorous and productive at advanced age. 

The permanency of western New York as a leading 
apple region may be explained partly by the conservatism 
of the New- York grower. Instead of devoting himself 
entirely to apples, the average farmer in western New 
York has 100 acres or more of farm land of which only 10 
to 20 acres are in apples. His other crops have main- 
tained him in poor apple years. The yields on the com- 
mercial full bearing orchards average from 75 to 100 bar- 
rels to the acre. 

Some idea of the importance of New York as an apple 
state may be gained from the fact that the 1918 commercial 
apple crop was estimated at 5,950,000 barrels, over two- 
thirds of which came from western New York. Baldwin 
represents nearly one-half and Rhode Island Greening 
about 20 per cent of the total production. Northern Spy, 
Roxbury Russet, Tompkins King, Duchess of Oldenburg, 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 31 

Hubbardston, Wealthy and Twenty Ounce comprise the 
greater part of the remaining cormnercial production. 

As might be expected, hirge storage plants have been 
built in nearly all of the apple towns. Some of the more 
important apple centers are Eochester, Lockport, Medina, 
Albion, Brockport, Sodus, East Williamson, JS^orth Rose, 
Canandaigua and Ilolcomb. The barrel is used almost 
exclusively and very little of the crop moves in bulk. 

A high percentage of the dried apple production of this 
country comes from the western New York apple region. 
For many years Wayne County has been the center of 
dried apple production and in some seasons as much as 40 
per cent of its crop is used for drying. Nearly every 
orchardist in this county has his own drier, and the pro- 
duction comes largely from small home driers rather than 
from large commercial plants. 

There is considerable variation in the typQS of orchards 
in western New York. Probably 80 to 90 per cent of 
the bearing orchards are over twenty years of age and 
there are many profitable orchards over fifty years old. It 
is believed that the trees in this region reach their maxi- 
mum bearing capacity at forty to fifty years. The earlier 
plantings were set about 33 x 33 which proved too close 
on account of the large size which the trees attained. New 
plantings are being made 40 x 40. 

Orchard values in western New York have never reached 
the high figure attained in some apple regions. Seldom 
are bearing orchards valued at more than $500 an acre. 
It is difficult to give orchard values in any region and 
particularly in western New York where the orchard us- 
ually goes with the farm and where varying care is given. 
Some orchards are worth little more than the land they 



32 The Commercial Apple Industry 

occupy. These are the old orchards which have received 
indifferent care for many years. 

HUDSON VALLEY 

The Hudson Valley is one of the well known eastern 
regions, the important commercial plantings extending 
along the Hudson River from Saratoga County south to 
Westchester County, and including both sides of the val- 
ley for a width of several miles. The normal production 
for this region is about 600,000 barrels and originates 
largely in the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Greene and 
Ulster, with lesser amounts in Albany, Saratoga, Rensse- 
laer, Orange, Putnam and Westchester. The industry is 
very intensive about the towns of Coxsackie, Ravena, Ger- 
mantown, Red Hook, Millbrook, Athens, Milton and Ulster 
Park. 

Much of the land is rough and hard to work and this 
region is not as well adapted to general farming as western 
New York. ■ The soil in some instances is more or less de- 
ficient in fertility. 

The varieties grown are principally Baldwin, Greening, 
Ben Davis and Spy, with considerable commercial quanti- 
ties of Mcintosh, Duchess, Gravenstein, Holland Pippin, 
Fall Pippin, English and Roxbury Russet. 

Trees are much the same in age as in western New 
York, the orchards in many cases being even older. How- 
ever, there is a larger proportion of young plantings and 
orchards coming into bearing in the Hudson Valley than in 
the western part of the state and particularly is this true of 
Dutchess and Columbia counties. 

The apples from the Hudson Valley are shipped largely 
by boat and rail to New York and eastern markets. Many 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 33 

apples are grown here for the fancy trade demand and 
such varieties usually bring good returns, due to the prox- 
imity to market. The average annual yields are less than 
in western New York, due largely to soil conditions. The 
future of the Hudson Valley fruit industry seems assured 
on account of its proximity to market. 

NEW ENGLAND BALDWIN BELT 

The intensive apple sections of Maine, New Hampshire 
and Massachusetts are included in what is known as the 
New ijngland Baldwin Belt, so called on account of the 
prominence of the Baldwin variety. Beginning in south- 
ern Maine, this region extends through southern New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, and into Connecticut, includ- 
ing both the intensive and more scattered and outlying 
apple plantings in this territory. In Maine the leading 
apple counties are Oxford, Kennebec, Franklin and Andro- 
scoggin; in New Hampshire, Kockingham and Hills- 
boro; while the heaviest apple production in Massachu- 
setts comes from Middlesex, Franklin and Worcester coun- 
ties. 

As above stated, Baldwin is the leading New England 
variety, while Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Mc- 
intosh, Wealthy, Gravenstein, Tolman, Ben Davis, Porter 
and Stark have commercial importance. The New Eng- 
land apple trees, like those of New York, are for the most 
part old. Great numbers of them have gone out of com- 
mercial bearing in recent years and especially during the 
very cold winter of 1917-1918, when it was estimated that 
over a million Baldwin trees of this section were killed. 

The gipsy moth has done heavy damage to the orchards 
in New Hampshire, and the commercial production for the 



34 The Commercial Apple Industry 

J^ew England Baldwin bolt has decreased within recent- 
years. A great number of voimg orchards are coming in, 
particularly in favored spots of New Hampshire and Mass- 
achusetts, and these new orchards will tend to make up loss 
among older trees. Many varieties, such as Wealthy, Mc- 
intosh and other fall or early winter sorts, are proving 
profitable. Mcintosh and Wealthy are becoming espe- 
cially popular in the newer plantings. Such varieties as 
Stark, Yellow Bellflower, Porter, Tolman Sweet, Russets, 
and many other old varieties are still found in considerable 
quantity, but are no longer being planted. 

The orchards of New England for the most part are 
small in size and come more nearly being farm orchards 
than do those of any other commercial section. They are 
in many cases too small to be operated profitably on a 
strictly commercial basis. 

A large part of the New England apple crop is marketed 
locally, particularly in Massachusetts where many apples 
are shipped- in bulk or hauled in trucks to Boston and 
nearby markets. In normal times New England exports 
large quantities of apples, particularly of the Baldwin va- 
riety. The barrel is the standard package for New Eng- 
land apples when shipped in quantity to outside markets, 
although for local consumption basket, box or bulk trade 
predominates. In many cases, strictly high-grade apples 
are put up in boxes. The normal commercial produc- 
tion for this region is about 1,250,000 barrels, and it is^ 
not likely to increase ; in fact, unless planting is stimulated 
to a greater degree than at present, production will de- 
crease somewhat on account of the number of old orchards 
which are dying or are losing their vigor. Production of 
high-grade fruit will increase. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 35 

THE CHAMPLAIN DISTEICT 

The Champlain district includes that portion of New 
York and Vermont bordering on Lake Champh^in and 
Lake George. It is situated in a very rigorous climate 
and only hardy varieties will grow there. It is famous 
for its fine quality fruit which brings high prices on the 
market. In area the Champlain region is small as com- 
pared with most other commercial districts. It includes 
the counties of Grand Isle, Addison, Chittenden and Kut- 
land, Vermont, and the counties of Clinton and Essex, 
New York. The bulk of the production originates near 
the towns of Middlebury, Shelburne, Rutland and Danby 
in Vermont. From a strictly commercial standpoint, 
Grand Isle County, Vermont, an island in Lake Cham- 
plain, is the most important of all the counties in this 
region. Peru, Plattsburg, Lewis and Crown Point are 
towns about which the apple industry centers on the New 
York side. 

The varieties grown in the Champlain region are Mc- 
intosh, Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening and Northern 
Spy. Varieties of less importance are Baldwin, Ben 
Davis and Wealthy. The district is best known for its Mc- 
intosh, Northern Spy and Fameuse production. 

Champlain orchards are in the main much younger than 
those " in other parts of Vermont and New York. The 
Grand Isle plantings, largely Mcintosh, are particularly 
young. Although great damage was done to the whole 
Champlain district by the severe winter of 1917-1018, the 
young plantings will no doubt soon make up for this loss 
and bring the production up to normal. Mcintosh trees 
survived the severe winter better than any other variety, a 



36 The Commercial Apple Industry 

fact which will stimulate their planting to an even greater 
degree. 

NEW JERSEY 

The commercial apple production of New Jersey orig- 
inates largely in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester coun- 
ties in the southwestern part of the state and in Monmouth 
County in the northeast. The southwestern apple counties 
of New Jersey are all within easy access by truck to Phil- 
adelphia, while Monmouth County production reaches New 
York City easily by rail. 

In former years, plantings in the western and north- 
western part of the state along the Pennsylvania border 
were responsible for a considerable production of winter 
apples, but this region has declined in importance in re- 
cent years. The new orchards in New Jersey are made up 
largely of summer varieties. The varieties of importance 
in Monmouth County are Ben Davis, Winesap, Graven- 
stein, English Codling, Wealthy, Twenty Ounce, Olden- 
burg and Eed Astrachan. For the counties in the south- 
western part of the state, Starr, Early Ripe, Williams 
Early Red and Yellow Transparent predominate, while 
Winesap and Stayman are favorite late varieties. 

Considerable interest in apple-growing is being taken in 
the group of counties near Philadelphia, of which Burling- 
ton, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland are most im- 
portant. Considerable planting is being done and much 
young acreage is to be found in these counties. Riverton, 
Moorestown and Burlington are towns about which many 
commercial orchards are located. 

The early apple crop, which makes up such a large por- 
tion of the New Jersey production, is shipped largely in 
five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets. A small part of the 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 37 

crop moves out in barrels, but the five-eighths-bushel basket 
is popular for winter as vs^ell as summer varieties. The 
commercial apple production for New Jersey is increasing, 
due to the greater output from the group of southwestern 
counties, including Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and 
Cumberland counties. 

The average commercial production for the state is esti- 
mated at about 500,000 barrels, of which a considerable 
percentage is made up of early varieties. The commercial 
apple sections in New Jersey are very favorably located 
with respect to markets and the future of the industry in 
this state seems bright. 

DELAWARE ( PLATE III) 

The apple section in Delaware is really more or less of 
a continuation of the New Jersey district. Varieties, 
methods of marketing and even soil conditions are very 
much the same. The commercial apple orchards of Dela- 
ware are principally in Kent and Sussex counties. 
Plantings are intensive about the towns of Wyoming and 
Bridgeville. The average- production for the state is 
nearly 200,000 barrels, much of this being made up of 
early varieties which are entirely off the market by 
August 1st. 

The early apple industry in Delaware proved profitable, 
especially during the few years prior to 1919, and at the 
present time it is experiencing a marked growth. Many 
new and very large orchards are being set out. Williams 
Early Red, Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent and Early 
Ripe are particularly popular among the early varieties, 
while Stayman leads among the late varieties. 

Large orchards are not uncommon in Delaware, there 



38 The Commercial Apple Industry 

being several commercial orchards, over 500 acres in' 
size. For the most part, these large tracts are carefully 
and systematically managed, although many have not yet 
attained full bearing. 

Delaware growers ship practically all their early fruit 
in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets, particularly the 
former, while the late apples are usually barreled. Dela- 
ware is primarily devoted to the production of early var- 
ieties and this has brought about its prominence in the 
commercial apple industry. Much of the acreage is young 
and an increased production is to be expected. 

SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT 

The Shenandoah-Cumberland district is the term applied 
to that section of Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia and 
Pennsylvania which is included in the Shenandoah and 
Cumberland valleys. This region has somewhat recently 
come into prominence and is yet only approaching its max- 
imum production. By mentioning Frederick County, 
Virginia; Berkeley County, West Virginia; Washington 
County, Maryland; Franklin and Adams counties, Penn- 
sylvania ; and counties in close proximity to these, a more 
or less compact region is defined which rivals western 
irrigated districts in intensity and exceeds New England 
in normal production. A full or normal crop for the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland would be over 3,000,000 barrels. 

The two towns about wh-ich the apple industry of this 
region centers are Martinsburg, West Virginia, and 
Winchester, Virginia. Other important apple to\vns are 
Staunton, Virginia, Chambersburg, Biglerville and 
Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, and Hancock, Maryland. 
The counties of Berkeley, West Virginia, and Frederick, 




Plate III. — (1) A typical commercial apple orchard in the 
Missouri Valley, Kansas. (2) A fifteen-year old Newtown or- 
chard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. (3) Red Astra- 
chan orchard in Delaware. Trees are too high and diflScult to 
harvest. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 39 

Virginia, rank among the highest producing counties in 
the country. Each is capable of yielding over a half 
million barrels of high quality fruit in good crop years. 
Augusta County, Virginia, has an enormous acreage of 
young trees and will soon rival these counties in produc- 
tion. Franklin and Adams counties, Pennsylvania, with 
but 20 to 30 per cent of their trees in bearing, produce a 
quarter million barrels each annually and their production 
is rapidly increasing. The same is true of Washington 
County, Maryland. 

The York Imperial is the leading variety for the Shen- 
andoah-Cumberland and the Ben Davis is second in import- 
ance. <jrrimes Golden, Stayman, Black 'Twig, Delicious 
and Yellow Transparent have been planted extensively. 
The York Imperial represents fully 40 per cent and Ben 
Davis about 20 per cent of the regional production. 
Stayman and Delicious will increase in commercial pro- 
duction in the upper Shenandoah Valley and particularly 
in Augusta County. Stayman yields are increasing very 
rapidly in Pennsylvania, particularly Adams and Frank- 
lin counties. 

The average orchard in the Shenandoah-Cumberland is 
fully twenty years younger than those in New York. Most 
of the orchards have not yet reached maximum bearing; 
in fact a very large percentage of the trees are not in 
bearing at all ; particularly is this true for Shenandoah, 
Rockingham and Augusta counties, Virginia, where enorm- 
ous acreages are just coming into bearing. 

Taken as a whole, the commercial apple plantings in the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland represent one of the most promis- 
ing regions in the country. The trees are young, and rela- 
tively free from disease; the yields are high; plantings 



40 The Commercial Apple Industry 

are centralized ; and possibilities are strons; for a rapidly 
increasing production. Practically all of the apples are 
shipped out in barrels, largely to northern markets. A 
greater relative increase in production may be expected 
from this district than from any other outside of the North- 
west. 

PIEDMOISTT DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA ( PLATE II ) 

In total production several regions excel the Piedmont 
of Virginia, but in historic interest and beauty it is unsur- 
passed. The Piedmont region extends from Patrick 
County in the southern part of Virginia, north along the 
eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Potomac 
at Loudoun County. This area includes the famous Albe- 
marle Pippin and old Winesap district of Virginia, which 
centers in the counties of Albemarle and Nelson. Other 
counties of importance are Franklin, Roanoke, Bedford, 
Amherst, Patrick, Rappahannock, Loudoun and Culpepper. 
The most intensive plantings are about the towns of Crozet, 
Afton, Covesville, in the heart of the Piedmont, and also 
about Roanoke, Salem, and Stuart farther south. 

The Albemarle Pippin plantings for which the Pied- 
mont is famous are found largely in the old orchards, par- 
ticularly those in the Rock Fish Valley in Nelson County 
and about Covesville, Crozet and Charlpttesville in Albe- 
marle County. Pippin plantings also occur in the eastern 
part of Nelson County and farther south through Amherst, 
Bedford, and as far as the Bent Mountain district in Roa- 
noke County. Most of these Albemarle Pippin plantings 
of the Piedmont are well advanced in age and only a few 
young trees are coming on to replace them. 

While the Piedmont has been best known for its Albe- 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 41 

marie Pippins for more than a century and a half, the old 
Winesap is more widely grown and is produced in greater 
commercial quantities than any other variety. York Im- 
perial represents from 15 to 20 per cent of the regional 
production, while Stayman and Black Twig occur in some 
commercial plantings. The age of the Piedmont orchards 
varies from a few years to a century. The oldest trees in 
profitable bearing are those of the Albemarle Pippin or 
Newtown variety which was highly prized in the English 
markets a century ago. On account of late bearing and 
susceptibility to bitter-rot, this variety is less popular in 
the newer plantings. Principal commercial plantings 
average from fifteen to twenty years of age and lean rather 
strongly to Winesap, Sta;yTnan and York Imperial. A full 
crop for this region would be about 800,000 barrels but 
the average is not much over 500,000 barrels. 

Piedmont orchards are distinctly mountainous in char- 
acter, most of them being situated on hill or mountain 
sides. They are somewhat difiicult to work and harvesting 
operations are expensive. Practically all the fruit is 
barreled and moves to outside markets, there being little 
home trade. Many of the York Imperials and Albemarle 
Pippins are exported. While annual yields do not gener- 
ally equal those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland on the 
west, higher quality varieties are grown and better prices 
are received. Among the disadvantages to be considered 
in this region is the prevalence of bitter-rot. Root-rot has 
also caused considerable loss and the growers find it impos- 
sible to control. 

A considerable acreage of young trees will attain full 
bearing soon after 1920 and the production of this section 
will doubtless be increased. High quality fruit and a 



42 The Commercial Apple Industry 

progressive spirit among- its growers insures growth and 
development of the apple industry in the Piedmont. 

MINCE EEGIONS IN PENNSYXVANIA, WEST VIKGINIA 
AND VIKGINIA 

Aside from the important apple regions described, a 
number of minor regions throughout Pennsylvania, West 
Virginia and Virginia are worthy of mention. 

In the northeastern part of Pennsylvania, particularly 
in Luzerne and Lycoming counties, are considerable com- 
mercial apple plantings of Baldwin, ]^ortherii Spy and 
Rhode Island Greening. These conform more to the type 
of orchards in western New York than to those in Penn- 
sylvania's leading apple region in the Cumberland Valley 
district. 

Outside of the eastern Panhandle section included in the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland region already described, there 
are no extensive commercial apple plantings in West Vir- 
ginia except in Hancock County which is situated at the tip 
of the northern Panhandle which extends northward be- 
tween Pennsylvania and Ohio. This was originally the 
most important commercial apple district in West Vir- 
ginia, but it has long since been eclipsed by the great 
development in Berkeley and surrounding counties. The 
important variety grown in Hancock County is the Willow 
Twig, well known on the Pittsburg markets. The or- 
chards are for the most part old and increased commercial 
production seems unlikely. 

In southwestern Virginia there are many commercial 
orchards. This district is not included in either the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland or Piedmont region. The var- 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 43 

ieties grown are Winesap, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, 
Stajman, Lowry, Virginia Beauty and Delicious. 

MOUNTAIN EEGION OF NORTH CAEOLINA 

The mountain district of North Carolina is more or less 
a continuation of the Virginia Piedmont. Apples have 
been grown in the mountains of western North Carolina 
for many years ; it is said that many of the old plantings 
were for the purpose of producing apples to be used 
in the manufacture of apple brandy. Certainly a great 
many of the old orchards are located in relatively inaccess- 
ible and remote localities. It is doubtful whether more 
than 5 per cent of the North Carolina apple acreage has 
ever been sprayed. 

When the manufacture of apple brandy was discon- 
tinued, it was found that there was a market for apples in 
their fresh state and at the present time many thousand 
bushels of fruit produced on the old unsprayed orchards 
are hauled down the mountain-sides in wagons to find their 
way to the market in bulk. Improved cultural practices 
are being adopted more and more each year. 

Apple orchards are planted in the western part of North 
Carolina, extending from Surry County, bordering on 
Patrick County, Virginia, on the north, almost to the 
extreme southwestern corner of the state. North Carolina 
apple orchards represent two distinct types. While for 
the most part the older trees are neglected and unsprayed, 
there are very intensive and strictly commercial plantings 
in a few localities, such as in Surry County in the vicinity 
of Mt. Airy in the northwestern part of the state. A little 
farther south other commercial plantings have been set out 



44 The Commercial Apple Industry 

in the vicinity of Taylorsville and Wilkesboro. The dried 
apple industry has assumed considerable proportions in 
this locality. 

The most progressive apple section in North Carolina 
is in Hayv\70od County near Waynesville. Here a con- 
siderable number of strictly commercial apple orchards 
have been set out, which are responsible for the increasing 
commercial output of this section. A third important 
commercial region is in Polk and Henderson counties in 
the vicinity of Saluda and Hendersonville. 

While most of the North Carolina apple crop is handled 
in bulk, the product from the later commercial plantings is 
nearly all barreled, and finds a ready sale at good prices 
in southern markets. In addition to the apple counties 
already named, some commercial planting is found in 
Watauga, Madison, Kutherford, Alexander, and Jackson 
counties. 

The leading variety of the old orchards is the Limber- 
twig of which there are several^types, including the Royal 
or Brushy Mountain Limbertwig. Winesap, Stayman, 
Delicious, and Arkansas (Black Twig) are among the new 
varieties predominating in the younger plantings. Pro- 
duction of these varieties will increase materially. The 
Limbertwig, although a very good apple, owes its early 
popularity to the fact that it is a late keeper. Better 
known and higher quality varieties are supplanting the 
Limbertwig in the younger orchards. It is quite apparent 
that the strictly commercial production of apples from 
North Carolina will be increased materially when the 
young plantings attain full bearing. Surry County in the 
northwest central part of the state, and Haywood County 



I; 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 45 

in the western part, will be the main centers of commer- 
cial production. 

A full crop for western North Carolina at this time 
would not exceed 300,000 barrels of commercial apples, 
of which the larger part would be sold in bulk. 

MOUNTAIN KEGION OF GEORGIA 

While not as yet representing great commercial pro- 
duction, an apple region is developing in the extreme north- 
eastern part of Georgia which is of particular interest 
since most of its fruit is boxed. Strictly speaking, the 
commercial apple district in Georgia includes but two 
counties: Rabun and Habersham, in the extreme north- 
eastern part of the state. Habersham County is the more 
important of the two and has experienced a period of 
heavy planting, which promises a greatly increased com- 
mercial output. A single orchard in this region ships as 
many as 40,000 packed boxes of apples in a season, which 
is a large boxed apple crop for any orchard East or West, 
but more particularly the East where boxing of apples is 
little practiced. H. R. State, whose orchard is one of the 
finest and most profitable for its size in Georgia, had much 
to do with the early development of this region. The most 
intensive apple plantings are about the towns of Cornelia, 
Demorest, Tallulah Falls and Clarksville. 

The leading variety in northeast Georgia is the Yates, 
which seems particularly adapted to the southern climatic 
and soil conditions, and has proved very popular on account 
of its heavy annual bearing habit. Other varieties of 
commercial importance are Terry's Winter, Stayman 
Winesap, Black Twig, Shockley and Winesap. Delicious 



46 The Commercial Apple Industry 

appears prominently in newer plantings. The Limber- 
twig and ISTickajack are found in the older orchards, but 
are not common in newer ones. A very large percentage 
of the commercial plantings in both Rabun and Haber- 
sham counties have been made since 1910. 

This region eni'oys close proximity to the southern 
markets, and for that reason a good outlet for its fruit is 
assured. Several very favorable tracts of land have been 
set to apple trees in northeast Georgia and while for the 
most part these orchards are promising and well cared for, 
it is unfortunate that some unworthy promotion schemes 
have been planned for the exploitation rather than the 
development of the apple industry in this region. Most 
of the trees not yet being in full bearing, it is difficult to 
state the possible output; the largest crop year prior to 
1919 included over 100,000 bushels of boxed apples, as 
well as considerable quantities shipped in bulk. A greatly 
increased production may be expected. 

OHIO 

Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district. 

The Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district is fairly well- 
defined and centralized and has come into prominence since 
1910. The most important plantings in this region are 
in Lawrence, Gallia, Meigs, Athens and Washington coun- 
ties, bordering on the Ohio River, Lawrence and Washing- 
ton being particularly noteworthy. Extensive plantings 
occur about the towns of Marietta, Proctorville and Gal- 
lipolis. 

Apple land of this region is mountainous in character, 
and the orchards are very often isolated and more or less 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 47 

inaccessible. On account of the rolling character of the 
land, orchard operations are somewhat difficult. In many 
cases terraces have been made to facilitate the operation 
of power spray outfits. It is common to find the orchards 
situated on the tops of the hills. Trees are set close 
together and do not attain the size of those in most eastern 
regions. Orchards for the most part are under twenty- 
five years of age. A lack of s^nnmetry is noticeable in 
some commercial plantings on account of missing and 
varying sized trees. Much of the fruit is ferried across 
the Ohio River to Huntington and Parkersburg on the 
West Virginia side. These cities, together with Marietta 
in Ohio, are the principal distribution centers for the 
southern Ohio crop. 

With the exception of some summer varieties which 
are often sold in bulk in nearby markets, most of the 
apples are barreled. The commercial production of the 
region has reached 750,000 barrels in certain years. 
Rome Beauty, the leading variety, originated in southern 
Ohio and is especially adapted to this section. Ben Davis, 
Grimes, York Imperial, Oldenburg and Yellow Trans- . 
parent are among other important varieties grown com- 
mercially, of these Ben Davis and Grimes being most 
widely grown. 

The average annual yields in this region are rather 
small and unless planting proceeds more rapidly than for 
the period 1015 to 1919, no greatly increased production 
can be expected. 

Minor regions in Ohio. 

Columbiana County in the eastern part of Ohio is a 
rather important apple county with a number of old 



48 The Commercial Apple Industry 

orchards, many of which are not very well taken care of. 
The leading varieties are Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis, 
Hubbardston and Flushing Spitzenburg, the latter known 
commercially only in this locality. 

In northern Ohio along the lake belt, particularly in 
Ottawa, Sandusky, Huron and Erie counties, are some- 
what limited apple plantings consisting largely of Baldwin, 
Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, Mcin- 
tosh, and Duchess. 

Farther south in Ohio, about midway between the south- 
ern Rome Beauty section and Lake Erie is another small 
apple district consisting of more or less scattered plant- 
ings about Chillicothe. Early varieties such as Yellow 
Transparent figure in the production of this locality. 

KENTUCKY 

For many years Kentucky has been credited with a very 
large apple production. However, this is for the most 
part non-commercial and originates almost entirely in old 
neglected orchards. The strictly commercial apple plant- 
ings of Kentucky are largely in Henderson County on the 
Ohio River just south of Evansville, Indiana. The apple 
industry has not attained very great proportions even 
here, although there are a number of important plantings 
and the orchards are generally well taken care of. The 
leading varieties are Winesap, Stayman, and Ben Davis, 
although there are considerable plantings of early kinds. 
In some years the total production of this small section 
reaches 40,000 barrels, although it is more commonly 
under 30,000 barrels of strictly commercial apples. The 
industry is being fostered in this section and further 
growth seems probable. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 49 



MICHIGAN 



Commercial apple-growing has been an important enter- 
prise in Michigan for forty years or more. While apple 
plantings are not confined to any one county or group of 
counties, they are centralized in the region bordering on 
the eastern shore of Lake Michigan where the tempering 
influence of the lake favors the culture of many deciduous 
fruits. Some of the soils in this region are extremely 
sandy and are more particularly adapted to peach-growing 
than to apple-culture. A large portion of land, however, 
is a sandy clay loam, well suited to apples. 

The region is known as the western Michigan fruit belt 
and extends from Berrien County on the south to Che- 
boygan County on the north. The most important apple 
counties of this region are Van Buren, Allegan, Kent, Ber- 
rien, Oceana and Grand Traverse. Apple plantings are 
also found in adjoining counties and widely scattered 
throughout most of the lower peninsula of Michigan. 
Some of the oldest orchards in the state are in the south 
and southeastern counties, but the importance of this re- 
gion has given way to the newer plantings, particu- 
larly in the northern end of the western Michigan fruit 
belt. 

Production for western Michigan in a full crop year 
would approximate 1,200,000 barrels or about 75 per cent 
of the total commercial apple production of the state of 
Michigan. The plantings in the southern part of the belt 
suffered severe loss from San Jose scale, while those in the 
northern part are much younger and have experienced less 
injury from scale. There has undoubtedly been a decline 
in the production in Michigan as compared with 1910. 



50 The Commercial Apple Industry 

However, with the young orchards just coming into bear- 
ing and with better care being given to the older trees, it 
seems highly probable that this loss will be made up within 
the next few years. 

The leading variety grown in western Michigan is the 
Baldwin, which comprises over one-fourth of the total pro- 
duction. Northern Spy and Oldenburg (Duchess) each 
represents about 14 per cent of the total production. Ac- 
cording to a recent survey, varieties next in order of im- 
portance are Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy, 
Ben Davis, and Jonathan ; the last named being prominent 
in the newer orchards of Van Buren, Allegan and Berrien 
counties. Ben Davis is outstanding in the older orchards 
in the southernmost counties. Oldenburg (Duchess) and 
Wealthy are the leading summer and fall varieties. 

Most of the apples of this region are packed out in 
barrels and a large proportion of the crop is marketed in 
Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities nearby. 
Producing communities situated close to cities market 
much of their apple crop by wagon or truck, crates and 
bushel baskets figTiring in this movement. An increased 
interest in the apple industry in western Michigan is 
evidenced in better cultural and marketing methods. 
Cooperative associations are increasing in prominence in 
many localities. 



ILLINOIS 



Illinois occupies a position of considerable importance 
in the commercial production of apples. Soil conditions 
generally throughout the entire state are very well adapted 
,to apple-growing, and nearly every county has a consider- 
able acreage of trees. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 51 

Strictly commercial areas are largely confined to the 
southern part of the state. They may be segregated into 
three fairly well-defined regions: (1) The extreme south- 
ern portion; (2) the Mississippi Valley region centering 
about Pike and Calhoun counties; (3) the southeastern 
part of the state, centering in Marion County. 

Illinois is probably under-estimated from a commercial 
standpoint. New orchards coming into bearing, and the 
renovation of old ones have combined in making this the 
most important middle western apple state. Its central 
location and proximity to market serve as distinct 
advantages. 

Southern Illinois early apple region. 

The extreme southern or early apple section in Illinois 
may be defined to include the eleven southernmost coun- 
ties, but only Union and Johnson are of great commercial 
importance. These counties probably comprise one of the 
most important early apple-producing sections in the 
United States. J. C. B. Heaton of New Bumside is one 
of the persons largely responsible for the early develop- 
ment of this industry. Good returns for apples have 
stimulated planting and an increasing production may be 
expected from this region. 

The principal early varieties are Yellow Transparent, 
Duchess of Oldenburg, Benoni, Red June, Chenango and 
Sops of Wine. Summer varieties comprise nearly three- 
fourths of the total production. 

Prominent among winter varieties are Winesap, Ben 
Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty. Early apples 
are shipped in baskets to Chicago, St. Louis and other 
nearby cities. The shipping season for these apples 



52 The Commercial Apple Industry 

begins the last week in June and is usually over by 
August first. Winter apples are sold either in bulk or 
in barrels. 

In some ways this extreme southern portion of Illinois 
is a continuation of the Ozark uplift. The country is 
somewhat mountainous and unlike northern Illinois. 
The soil is rather thin and in general well suited for the 
quick early growth of summer varieties. 

Mississippi Valley region of Illinois. 

Adams, Pike and Calhoun counties bordering on the 
Mississippi River are responsible for the heavy produc- 
tion of apples in western Illinois. Calhoun leads in ton- 
nage shipped and a large part of its output goes down the 
Mississippi River by boat. 

Conditions are dissimilar to those in the early apple 
region in the southern part of the state. With the excep- 
tion of Calhoun and Pike counties, laud in western 
Illinois is more typical of the prairie states. Calhoun 
County apple production is being more than maintained 
by new plantings. While the total acreage in the other 
counties may have suffered more or less decrease from 
1910 to 1918, a greater interest generally is exhibited 
among the leading and strictly commercial growers. 
Nearly 90 per cent of the acreage in this section is 
sprayed, while for the state as a whole it is doubtful 
whether 25 per cent of the acreage is sprayed. 

Leading varieties for this region are Ben Davis, Gano,] 
Jonathan, Grimes, Willow Twig and Winesap. Ben] 
Davis and Willow Twig predominate. Practically all] 
commercial apples are shipped in barrels. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63 

Southeastern Illinois. 

The Marion County district in soiitheast Illinois is 
sometimes spoken of as the Flora section, since Flora 
is the principal shipping point and one of the important 
apple centers in the state. Clay, Richland, Wayne. Ef- 
fingham and Jasper counties are also included in this 
general region. Marion County was at one time credited 
as leading in the state in total number of trees, but in 
recent years has suffered heavily from loss in trees. 
Practically all of the orchards are of bearing age and 
very few trees are coming into bearing to rephice a great 
percentage which passed out prior to 1918. Neglect, old 
age, and infection with disease and insects, notably San 
Jose scale, have exacted a heavy toll. Some commercial 
growers are maintaining their orchards, but it is doubtful 
whether over 50 per cent of the total acreage is sprayed 
at all. Yields throughout this section are generally low. 

Most of the apples are sold in bulk; the remainder in 
barrels. Ben Davis is the leading commercial variety and 
represents over half of the total production. Jonathan, 
Winesap, Rome Beauty and Grimes Golden are less ex- 
tensively grovni. Of the summer varieties which prob- 
ably represent 15 per cent of the total production, Benoni, 
Transparent, Duchess and Wealthy are important. Con- 
sidered as a whole, Illinois is one of the few if not the 
only middle western state to maintain its commercial 
production in the face of a general decline in apple 
acreage throughout the Middle West during the period 
1905 to 1918. Of its three commercial apple regions, 
two are showing increased production. High production 
is possible with good care and it seems probable that 



54 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Illinois will remain the leading apple state of the Middle 
West for some years to come. 

OZARK REGION 

The Ozark region in southern Missouri and northwest- 
ern Arkansas is one of the best known apple sections in 
the United States, although in production it ranks third 
among the four important Middle West districts. 

Essentially it is a Ben Davis region, since this variety 
and Gano represent over 65 per cent of its plantings, and 
an even greater proportion of its production. During the 
decade 1890 to 1900, the entire Ozark region experienced 
an era of planting unequalled in any other section of the 
country. Prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated 
and encouraged plantings, and the good yields produced 
by the Ozark orchards then in bearing afforded excellent 
returns. The over-planting which occurred in the 
nineties resolved itself into somewhat of a land-selling 
boom, a repetition of which was experienced in the west- 
ern states from 1900 to 1910. Thousands of acres of 
both suitable and unsuitable land throughout the Ozarks 
have been set to trees, but of this great acreage only 
a portion has been cared for and much has been neglected^ 
and abandoned. The Ozark region includes some of thf 
best and some of the worst orchards in the country, 
period of late spring frosts in 1900 to 1910, when a. num- 
ber of consecutive crops were lost or severely damaged, 
contributed to the lack of care accorded to many of these 
trees. 

A full crop for the entire Ozark region would probably 
not exceed 1,000,000 barrels. Arkansas' contribution to 
the Ozark apple production originates almost entirely in 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 55 

two counties, Benton and Washington, situated in the ex- 
treme northwestern part of the state. Madison, Boone, 
Carroll and Crawford counties in Arkansas are of much 
less importance. Bentonville and Rogers in Benton 
County, and Springdale and Lincoln in Washington 
County are important apple centers in Arkansas. 

In Missouri the commercial apple plantings of the 
Ozarks continue from the extreme southwestern part of 
the state, along the Frisco Railway to the northeast as 
far as Crawford County. Lawrence, Greene, followed by 
iSFewton, Barry, Webster and Howell, are the most impor- 
tant Missouri counties in the Ozark region. Mariouville 
in Lawrence County is the center of the best orchard sec- 
tion in southern Missouri. Orchards in the vicinity of 
this town illustrate the possibilities to be attained in the 
Ozark region. 

Probably no other commercial apple district in the 
United States has suffered such a loss in trees as has 
the Ozark since 1910, Conservative estimates place the 
loss at more than 50 per cent, much of which has been 
due to blister-canker. With such conditions prevailing, 
one is not surprised in finding two very divergent types 
of orchards. There are the old, neglected dying orchards 
which have received practically no care while in some 
communities a revival of interest has brought many or- 
chards into a high state of cultivation and profitable bear- 
ing. In such counties as Texas in the extreme southern 
part of Missouri are orchards which look almost like virgin 
forests, branches interlock, trees are unsprayed, unpruned 
and uncared for. The price of the land is established by 
its value for general crops, less the cost of removing the 
neglected trees. 



56 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Orchards in the Ozark region vary from a few acres to 
over 100 in size, many of them being from 30 to 100 
acres in extent. Large orchards discourage intensive cul- 
tural methods and yields tend to be low and biennial as 
trees grow older. In some localities there is a progres- 
sive element in the farming population, evidenced by 
greater attention given to orchard management. Despite 
this revival of interest it is doubtful whether over 35 
per cent of the trees in the Ozark region are ever sprayed, 
with a result that not more than 35 per cent of the total 
acreage can be considered as strictly commercial. 

As stated above, Ben Davis and Gano represent over 65 
per cent of the Ozark production. Jonathan, Ingram, 
Maiden Blush, Grimes, York Imperial, Collins and Ar- 
kansas Black are found in limited plantings, more partic- 
ularly in younger acreage. 

More than half of the production from this region is 
shipped in bulk, only the better grades and the higher 
quality varieties being shipped in barrels. It must be re- 
membered, however, that the bulk production competes 
directly with the barreled stock and is frequently not in- 
ferior in quality. 

MISSOURI RIVER REGIOlSr ( PLATE III) 

Important commercial apple plantings of Iowa, 
Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri are at the in- 
tersection of these four states, in what is known as the 
Loess Apple Belt, along the Missouri River in north- 
western Missouri, southwestern Iowa, southeastern 
Nebraska, and northeastern Kansas. This section has 
been placed in a district by itself, since the important 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 57 

plantings are centralized in a well known and fairly well 
defined commercial region. 

The most extensive apple plantings in the Missouri 
River region are in Buchanan County in the vicinity of 
St. Joseph in northwestern Missouri, and across the Mis- 
souri Eiver in Doniphan County in northeastern Kansas. 
Iowa and I^ebraska plantings are of less importance 
although the ]\Iissouri River region properly includes 
small corners of the above two states. In Nebraska, 
Nemaha and Richardson are two important counties, while 
across the Missouri River, Fremont, Mills and Pottawa- 
tomie counties lead in the commercial production for Iowa. 

All of the counties named border on the Missouri River 
and with several other counties in close proximity, com- 
prise a fairly compact region which extends into four states 
and has a normal production of nearly 2,000,000 barrels, 
which is greater than can be credited to the Ozark region. 
Ben Davis and Gano comprise approximately 50 per cent 
of the production from the Missouri River district, while 
Jonathan, Winesap, Arkansas (Black Twig) and Missouri 
Pippin trees have been extensively planted, particularly in 
the younger orchards. A large part of the crop moves out 
in bulk as is the case in the Ozarks. 

Doniphan County, Kansas, deserves particular mention 
as one of the most important and highly commercial 
counties in the Middle West. Community spirit has 
stimulated development of the apple industry and extensive 
plantings are found in the vicinity of Wathena and Troy. 
A high percentage of the yield of Doniphan County is 
barreled and more of the trees are sprayed than in prob- 
ably any other middle western apple section. Carload 
shipments from Doniphan County alone have amounted 



58 The Commercial Apple Industry 

to more than 1,000 cars for a single season. In most 
instances the orchards reflect the careful attention which 
always insures a high state of productiveness. 

Orchards in northwest Missouri are older, have a larger 
proportion of Ben Davis trees and in the main have re- 
ceived less attention than those on the Kansas side. 
Buchanan County on the Missouri River ranks among the 
foremost, if not the foremost apple county in Missouri, 
and yet it is doubtful whether 50 per cent of the trees 
are sprayed. While Buchanan County has been singled 
cut on account of its central location and relative impor- 
tance, other counties in northwest Missouri, including 
ISTodaway, Holt, Jackson and Lafayette, are of almost 
equal importance. 

The orchards in the Missouri River region are more- 
uniform in type than those in the Ozarks and are, as sM 
whole, better cared for. There are many old neglected 
orchards in northwest Missouri, but these are fast going 
out and the production from strictly commercial orchards 
promises to dominate the output of the region. The great- 
est increase in production may be expected from the young 
plantings in Kansas, many of which are just coming into 
bearing. 

Outside of the intensive conmiercial apple regions, the 
Middle West has suffered a tremendous loss in trees.: 
However, most of these were in the farm orchards and it 
is felt that such regions as the Missouri River or loess 
soil region will serve to maintain the commercial produc- 
tion of the Middle West at some point near its present fig- 
ure. It must be remembered that apple-growing along the 
Missouri River has never reached the intensity of many 
other regions. General farming with here and there a 



I 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 59 

commercial orchard describes the general farm manage- 
ment scheme. As may be expected, where apple-growing 
is only one of a number of enterprises, the general care 
given orchards is not as highly intensive as in some sec- 
tions. Commercial production at the present time comes 
from a comparatively few well-cared-for orchards. 

AKKANSAS VALLEY OF KANSAS 

The Arkansas River Valley in south central Kansas 
is a distinct region which requires separate treatment. 
Apple plantings in this valley are confined largely to the 
sandy loam soil along the river and are in Reno, Sedg- 
wick, Sumner and Cowley counties. ISTot all the valley 
land is suited to apples and plantings are spotted. Many 
of the orchards are irrigated with water pmnped from 
wells and it is the only section east of Colorado in which 
irrigation is practiced in the growing of apples. 

Heavy plantings were made in the period 1907 to 
1910 and this region will be of increasing importance as 
trees attain full bearing. Winesap and Ben Davis are 
the leading varieties, while Jonathan, Black Twig, Gano, 
York Imperial, Grimes and Rome Beauty are of less 
importance. On account of irrigation and other farm 
management practices in vogue, the Arkansas Valley has 
more in common with the western irrigated districts than 
with the typical Middle West sections. Furthermore, 
while bulk shipments represent a large portion of the 
crop, a considerable percentage of the output is marketed 
in boxes. No barreling is done. A full crop from this 
region would be equivalent to about 250,000 barrels at 
present. Increased production may be expected. 



60 The Commercial Apple Industry 

COLORADO 

Colorado stands out prominently as the most important 
apple state in the inter-mountain district. Practically the 
entire commercial apple crop of Colorado is produced on 
the western slope of the Rockies, in the Grand and Gunni-^ 
son valleys. The Grand Valley, extending in either 
direction from Grand Junction, in Mesa County, for a 
distance of ahout twelve miles, is the most highly developed 
district in the state. This valley is comparable in many 
ways with typical northwest apple districts, being essen- 
tially boxed apple-producing, relying on irrigation, and 
employing northwest methods of culture and farm man- 
agement. 

Heaviest planting in the Grand Valley was in the 
period 1905-1910. Practically no planting occurred 
between 1912 and 1918. In 1918 there were about 
10,250 acres of apples, of which 7,500 were over ten 
years of age. Alkali oviteroppings in certain parts of 
the valley caused a considerable loss in acreage, amounting 
to probably 2,000 or 3,000 acres. It is possible that 
further decreases in acreage will occur and yet increased 
bearing capacity of the remaining acreage will doubtless 
bring about increased production. The principal ship- 
ping stations in Mesa County are Grand Junction, Fruita 
and Clifton. 

The Grand Valley, while primarily an apple section, is 
not exclusively apple-producing. Nearly half of its fruit 
acreage consists of other fruits than apples. Peach and 
pear plantings, with smaller acreages of cherries and 
plums, represent in the aggregate nearly as extensive 
acreage as the apple. In the vicinity of Palisades, some 



i 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 61 

ten miles from Grand Junction, is the famous Elberta 
peach section, which has shipped 1,000 cars of peaches 
in a single season. 

The Grand Valley did not escape inflation. In fact, 
difficulties with irrigation systems and outcropping of 
alkali have brought this district its full share of troubles. 
In recent years the codlin-moth has become a most serious 
menace. In one respect, however, notably proximity to 
markets, Colorado has the advantage of states farther west. 
It is particularly adapted to the growing of Jonathan 
apples, which comprise nearly a third of its production. 
Winesap, Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Eome 
Beauty are among the other important varieties. The 
northwest box is used almost exclusively for the packed 
fruit, although bulk shipments figure more prominently in 
Colorado than in any other of the leading western apple 
states. Cooperative marketing has been an important 
factor in the development of this district. 

The western slope of Colorado includes two other apple 
districts, one in Delta and the other in Montrose County, 
both of less importance than the Grand Valley. In Delta 
County the apple acreage is in Gunnison Valley, with 
heaviest plantings at Ilotchkiss and Paonia. The Uncom- 
pahgre, a branch of the Gunnison, supplies water for the 
orchard plantings in Montrose County which centers about 
the town of Montrose. Both of these districts are irri- 
gated and conditions conform largely to those given for 
the Grand Valley. Varieties are very much the same, 
although less attention is given to other fruits. 

On the eastern slope, the Canyon City district in Fre- 
mont County, along the Arkansas Valley, is the only other 
apple section of importance in the state. A distinctive 



62 The Commercial Apple Industry 

feature of Colorado commercial apple plantings is that 
they occur at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea 
level. 

NEW MEXICO 

The Pecos Valley in Chaves County is the coming 
apple district in Nev^ Mexico, and is one of the important 
sections of the inter-mountain states. Over half of New 
Mexico's commercial apple crop is produced in Chaves 
County. Heaviest plantings are in the vicinity of Ros- 
well, Greenfield, Dexter and Hagerrnan. The latter lies 
thirty miles south of Roswoll along the Pecos River. 
County assessor's figTires indicate about 4,500 acres of 
trees planted before 1910 and about 2,500 acres planted 
1910 to 1919. Little planting has been made since 1912. 

Ben Davis and Gano are the principal varieties, with 
Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Black Twig, York 
Imperial and Arkansas Black among the less important. 

The northwest box is the common package for this 
district, although bulk shipments are important. Less 
care is taken in grading and packing the boxed fruit than 
in the Northwest and much of the crop is jumble packed.! 
The Texas farming section immediately to the east affordaj 
an outlet for most of the Pecos apple crop. Jonathansj 
come on the market earlier than in most sections, anc 
for that reason Pecos apples have priority in Texas! 
markets. A marked increase in production may be 
expected from this section. Heavy frosts are not infre- 
quent and have checked the normal increase in production. 
While 600 or 700 cars has been the largest production 
of this valley to date, a decided increase may be expected. 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63 

The only distinct apple region in New Mexico outside 
of the Pecos Valley is known as the Farmington district 
and is in San Juan County in the extreme northwestern 
corner of the state. The isolation of this region, com- 
bined with poor railroad facilities, has checked its develop- 
ment. Principal varieties are Gano, Jonathan, Rome 
Beauty and Winesap. 

UTAH 

Commercial apple-growing in Utah is largely confined 
to irrigated valleys in Boxelder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake, 
and Utah counties, which lie along the eastern shores of 
the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake, in north central 
Utah. The most highly commercial districts are near 
Provo in Utah, which has shipped as high as 300 cars 
of apples in a year, and also near Tremonton in Box- 
elder County. Both are irrigated and market their com- 
mercial apples largely in boxes, although bulk shipments 
are not uncommon. 

Principal varieties for the Provo district are Jonathan, 
Rome Beauty, Winesap, and Lawver; for the Tremonton 
section Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan and Winesap. The 
apple acreage in Utah County is approximately 5,000 
acres, of which two-thirds was planted before 1910. Of 
the 2,000 acres in apples in Boxelder County, most of 
the trees were planted between 1906 and 1910. Local 
consumption and nearby mining camps largely absorb the 
production of Weber and Davis counties. Limited 
increase in commercial production may be expected from 
this state as the acreage increases in age. It is improb- 
able that commercial shipments will exceed 1,000 cars 
within the next few years. 



64 The Commercial Apple Industry 

MONTANA 

The Bitter Root Valley, extending south from Missoula 
to Hamilton, Montana, at one time had an apple acreage 
amounting to 23,000 acres. Most of this acreage was 
represented in large projects which have since gone into 
the hands of receivers and are being neglected. Probably 
the greatest loss in acreage in any of the western districts 
has occurred in the Bitter Root Valley. The Mcintosh 
apple is suited to this region but trees do not attain large 
size nor is growth rapid. Yields are smaller than in 
many other irrigated sections. The slump in apple pro- 
motion struck the Bitter Root Valley at an inopportune 
time, and as a result much of its acreage will be lost or 
will not reach full commercial bearing. 

WASHINGTON 

Interest in apple production west of the Rockies centers 
chiefly in the Pacific Northwest and particularly in the 
state of Washington. In 1917 and 1919 Washington 
was the heaviest commercial apple-producing state in 
the Union, taking precedence even over New York which, 
on account of exceedingly light crops, dropped into second 
place for those years. Washington must be credited with 
over one-half of the total boxed apple production and in 
an average year now ranks first in quantity of commer- 
cial apples produced. 

It is interesting to note the very rapid growth and 
development of the apple industry in such regions as the 
Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, which have recently come 
into prominence and are largely responsible for Washing- 
ton's heavy production. Although very similar in many 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 65 

respects, these two districts will be discussed separately on 
account of their importance. 

Yakima Valley. 

The Yakima district is located in the south central part 
of the state and includes approximately 40,000 acres of 
apple plantings which are for the most part situated in the 
valley land lying along the Yakima Eiver and its tribu- 
tary streams. 

As stated in the history of the Yakima district, the first 
commercial planting was made in this region about 1888 
and as late as 1900 the total acreage of all orchard land 
was not more than 3,000 acres, and the total production 
did not exceed 200 carloads of fruit. Heaviest planting 
occurred after 1900 and reached a climax about 1908. 

Apple-growing is the principal industry in the Yakima 
Valley and, as might be expected, intensive methods of cul- 
tivation are practiced, every effort being directed at the 
production of high marketable quality fruit. The average 
fruit farm is under twenty acres and is devoted almost 
exclusively to apples. Peaches and pears are grown in 
lesser quantities and represent approximately 12 per cent 
of the total fruit acreage of the county. In more recent 
years greater diversification has been emphasized, with the 
result that growers with larger acreages are planting sugar- 
beets, potatoes and other crops. 

The productivity and ideal climatic conditions of the 
Yakima Valley attracted an unusually high type of settlers. 
The community spirit and social conditions are unsur- 
passed by those in any other apple region. Good roads 
have been constructed and excellent facilities for handling, 
packing and storing the fruit are available. Probably 



66 The Commercial Apple Industry 

nowhere else in the country have scientific horticultural 
methods been more assiduously practiced than in the 
Yakima Valley. 

The productivity of the Yakima orchards is very high. 
Their annual yields are greater than those in any other 
region with the exception of the Wenatchee district. 

The average annual rainfall in the Yakima Valley is 
under twelve inches, and irrigation is necessary. Millions 
of dollars have been expended in irrigation projects 
designed to bring water from the mountain streams and 
fructify the other^vise desert land. A large part of the 
acreage is watered from canals operated under the United 
States Reclamation Service, although private projects are 
also found. Water rights in some instances have cost as 
high as $175.00 an acre; the average has been much lower, 
however. Annual maintenance of the irrigation ditches 
once installed often represents as much as $4.00 an acre. 
When to these costs are added the high price for raw land 
and the expense of bringing an orchard into bearing under 
the most intensive care, some idea may be obtained of the 
reason for high valuation of western irrigated orchards. 
Two thousand dollars an acre has not been an uncommon 
price for full bearing orchards. In some instances 
unsuited land was planted and the district suffered from 
over-development of " boom " projects. 

The Yakima Valley is under a severe handicap by its 
distance from consuming centers. It must rely on large^ 
annual yields of high marketable apples for its survival. 
Production has been rapidly increasing and reached 11,500 
cars in 1919. Less than 25 per cent of the acreage was 
over ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production 
may be expected from this region in the next few years 






Leading Apple Regions of the United States 67 

Winesap is the leading variety and in some years repre- 
sents as high as one-half of the total production. Heavy 
plantings have been made of Jonathan, Ben Davis, Rome 
Beauty, Esopus (Spitzeuburg), Yellow Newtown, De- 
licious, Stayman, Gano and lesser plantings of Arkansas 
(Black Twig), Baldwin, Wagener, Grimes Golden and 
Arkansas Black. Probably in no other region is there a 
larger list of extensively grown varieties and yet most of 
those named are good commercial kinds well adapted to the 
region. 

Wenatchee North Central Washington district (Plate IV). 

The Wenatchee Valley is included in what is commonly 
spoken of as the North Central Washington fruit region. 
Although less than fifty miles apart, the Yakima and 
Wenatchee valleys are separated by a range of mountains 
and there are no rail connections except by a very circuit- 
ous route. These two very important fruit regions have 
grown up almost simultaneously under very similar condi- 
tions, vicing with each other in the production of high 
marketable quality apples. 

The Wenatchee Valley proper is in Chelan County, 
although in speaking of the North Central Washington 
district one commonly includes apple plantings along the 
Columbia River and its tributaries, extending northward 
from Wenatchee into Okanogan County. Annual rainfall 
varies from eight to fifteen inches and irrigation is neces- 
sary. 

The principal producing area of this region lies in the 
Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenat- 
chee, Monitor and Cashmere, and extends as far up the 
valley as Leavenworth, the latter being situated at the 



68 The Commercial Apple Industry 

base of the Cascades. A very intensive region is in a 
semi-circular area about the to"wn of Wenatchee. There 
is a considerable variation of altitude throughout the valley, 
but most of the orchards are at an elevation of 700 to 1,000 
feet. 

The Wenatchee Valley is even more intensive and com- 
' pact than the Yakima Valley. Its development dates back 
to about 1900, when the first large irrigation canal, later 
known as the Wenatchee Highline Canal, was begun. The 
planting of fruit-trees was more or less correlated with the 
development of irrigation. The total apple acreage in 
North Central Washington, including the Wenatchee Val- 
ley and the upper Columbia, is approximately 40,000 
acres. Some of this acreage is in Okanogan, Douglas and 
Grant counties adjoining Chelan County on the east. 
The shipments reached a maximum in 1919-1920 of 
12,300 cars of 756 boxes each. 

The farms in general throughout the Wenatchee region 
are small, most of them averaging not over fifteen acres 
and many even less. Some large projects embrace as 
many as several hundred acres each, but the region is not 
adapted to the extensive type of agriculture. The two 
predominating limiting factors are the high price of land 
and the small area of irrigable land. Peaches and pears 
are grown in limited quantities and there is also a consider- 
able acreage of alfalfa, but most of the latter occurs as an 
inter- or shade crop in the apple orchards. 

An intensive survey made by the authors in the Wenat-j 
chee Valley indicated an average investment to the acre) 
of nearly $2,000. It may be seen that with such a high 
valuation only a highly specialized crop like apples canj 
ever be made to bring a suSicient return on the invest- 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 69 

ment. It seems, then, that the Wenatchee Valley offers 
less opportunity for diversification than almost any other 
region in the United States. At the same time it is unsur- 
passed in productivity and high marketable quality of its 
fruit. The surveys indicate that of all the apple regions 
of this country the highest annual yields and the highest 
percentage of extra fancy and fancy fruit were produced 
in the Wenatchee Valley. Like the Yakima Valley, the 
Wenatchee district must rely on heavy yields and high 
marketable quality fruit to overcome a severe handicap of 
extreme distance from markets. The possibility for 
cooperative movement among growers is explained b;;, the 
intensity of plantings and by excellent community spirit. 

As in Yakima, the most intensive and careful orchard 
practices are in use. The Wenatchee region is practically 
free from fungus trouble, and with the exception of the 
codlin-moth, which is a decided menace, is infested with 
but few serious insect pests. In their early development, 
the Wenatchee orchards were almost without exception com- 
mitted to a practice of entire clean cultivation, without 
either shade or cover-crops. More recently, as in all irri- 
gated districts, the use of leguminous shade crops has 
become common. 

The highest production from the Wenatchee iSTorth Cen- 
tral Washington district prior to 1919 was the crop of 1917 
which amounted to approximately 8,500 cars of 756 boxes 
each. At least 75 per cent of the acreage was under ten 
years of age in 1918 and an increased production from 
this region may be expected. Winesap, Jonathan, De- 
licious, Spitzenburg, Stayman, Rome and Yellow New- 
Town are listed in the order of their importance. 



70 Commercial Apple Industry 

Spokane district. 

The third most important apple district in Washington 
is in Spokane Conntj and is commonly spoken of as the 
Spokane apple district. Acreage of this county at one 
time was nearly as great as that in Yakima, but the pro- 
duction has never apprpached that of the latter. The 
region was developed after the Yakima and Wenatchee dis- 
tricts and considerable acreage of unsuited land was set in 
trees. The most intensive plantings are in the Spokane 
Valley west of Spokane, extending along theh'iver for a 
distance of twenty-five miles to the east. Production 
from the county reached about 1,400 cars in 1920. A con- 
siderable increase in production may be expected, although 
it seems probable that much of the acreage originally set 
to trees, and particularly the trees on non-irrigated land, 
will never attain full commercial bearing. The principal 
varieties are Jonathan, Rome Beauty and Wagener. 

Walla Walla district. 

The Walla Walla district is the fourth important section 
in Washington. It is largely an upland region of rolling] 
hills. Irrigation is not generally practiced. The produc- 
tion has reached 1,000 cars in a single season. Much ofj 
the acreage is not yet in full bearing and increasingly] 
large crops may be anticipated. 

OBEGON (plates III, v) 

Hood River Valley. 

Oregon apples have come into prominence largely 
through the production from the very well kno\vn Hood 



f! 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 71 

Kiver Valley, which stands out pre-eminently as the prin- 
cipal apple-producing region in Oregon, and which must 
be credited with approximately half of the state's com- 
mercial production. In many ways the Hood River Val- 
ley is not comparable with the other western irrigated 
regions. Instead of a dry arid climate, it has a rainfall 
equaling that of New York. The trees have a different 
habit of growth and lower average yields are obtained 
than in most other apple sections of the ]S[orthwest. 
Lighter yields are very largely accounted for by the fact 
that Yellow Newtovm and Esopus (Spitzenburg), well 
known as high quality but rather shy bearing varieties, 
predominate. 

The development of the Hood River Valley occurred 
simultaneously with, or slightly in advance of, that of the 
Wenatchee and Yakima valleys. The Hood River district 
lies almost entirely in Hood River County, the latter being 
situated on the Columbia River at the northern boundary 
of the state. The valley is narrow, varying from two to 
eight miles in width, and the cultivated area extends from 
the town of Hood River, south to Parkdale in the upper 
valley, a distance of about twenty-four miles. This region 
is divided into what are known locally as the lower, middle 
and upper valleys. The lower valley contains the most 
bearing fruit and the greater percentage of tillable land. 

The Hood River, a fast flowing mountain stream rising 
at the foot of Mount Hood, divides the valley into the east 
and west sides. The orchards are located on the benches 
and rolling land on either side. For the most part, the 
orchards are small and receive the same cultural treatment 
which prevails in the Wenatchee and Yakima districts. 
Irrigation, although not always necessary, has been found 



72 The Commercial Apple Industry 

advisable in the growing of cover-crops and is common 
among most of the orchards. 

Many persons were attracted by the unusual scenic 
beauty of this little valley, which lies at the foot of Mount 
Hood. Unfortunately Hood River did not escape the 
effects of inflated land values and growers experienced a 
period of depression for a few years prior to 1917. The 
region has become widely advertised and known, although 
its production has never exceeded 2,200,000 boxes and 
will never approach in quantity that of the Yakima and 
Wenatchee valleys. Cooperative marketing has featured 
in the development of this region and the output of the 
valley commands unusually high prices. As stated above, 
the production in this region is largely confined to two 
varieties, the Yellow Newtown and the Esopus (Spitzen- 
burg) . 

Rogue River Valley. 

The Rogue River "Valley, although now widely known 
as a pear section, is the second largest apple-producing 
region in Oregon. The valley is somewhat highly special- 
ized, although its development has been slower than in most 
other apple districts in the I*^orthwest. Land values at 
one time were very high and a large number of easterners 
were attracted to the valley. A period of drought years, 
during which the annual rainfall dropped from the normal 
twenty-two inches to as low as twelve inches, caused great 
loss and emphasized the need of irrigation, which is now 
practiced in about a third of the orchards and is being 
extended to the others. 

The fruit acreage lies almost wholly in Jackson County 
and plantings are centralized in Stewart Creek and Rogue 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 73 

River valleys, about the towns of Medford, Ashland, Tal- 
ent and Phoenix. Of the approximate acreage of 23,000 
acres of commercial fruit plantings, about 13,000 acres 
are in pears and 10,000 in apple trees. In the apple acre- 
age, Yellow JSTewtowus, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Jonathan, 
and Ben Davis are the predominating varieties. Prob- 
ably 75 per cent of the present production consists of 
Yellow Newtowns. As in other northwest districts, the 
summer apple is an alijiost negligible factor. Approx- 
imately half of the apple acreage of this region was ten 
years of age or over in 1918. 

The prevalence of spring frost-injury led to a rather 
wide use of oil-heaters, particularly in the orchards on the 
floor of the valley. Foothill orchards are less subject to 
frost and as a rule are not smudged. Despite the dry 
atmosphere, the apple-scab is more or less prevalent and 
requires summer spraying. Fire-blight, particularly 
among the pear trees and Esopus (Spitzenburg) apple 
trees, caused great loss in the years 1913-1915. 

The droughts between 1914 and 1918 checked the normal 
increase in production. The largest crop of apples prior 
to 1919 was harvested in 1917 and consisted of about 700 
cars. Practically all of the marketable apples are packed 
out in boxes. 

Other apple districts in Oregon. 

In addition to the apple plantings in the Hood and 
Rogue River valleys are some very promising apple 
orchards in the Willamette Valley and Roseburg section; 
and also in the ]VIilton-Freewater district in the north- 
eastern part of the state. Commercial projects are also 
found in Wasco County. 



74 The Commercial Apple Industry 



IDAHa 



The following four fairly well defined, yet more or less 
isolated, apple sections are found in Idaho: Payette Val- 
ley, Boise Valley, Lewiston district and Twin Falls dis- 
trict. Idaho was somewhat behind Oregon and Washing- 
ton in the time of the development of its fruit industry 
and probably has a greater proportion of young trees 
than either of the other two. The commercial production 
of Idaho exceeded 3,600 cars in 1919, 

Payette district. 

The apple acreage of the Payette district is largely in 
the Payette Valley, with extensive plantings in the vicin- 
ity of Fruitland, Payette, Weiser and New Plymouth. 
This district represents the heaviest producing area in the 
state. Its production has exceeded 2,000 cars in a single 
season and an even greater output is promised on account 
of the new acreages just coming into bearing. 

As in all of Idaho's plantings, the Jonathan grows to 
perfection and is the predominating variety. Other 
important varieties of the Payette are Rome Beauty, Gano, 
Ben Davis, and Winesap. The northwest box system of 
packing and general orchard management is used through- 
out this region, although there is not the intensity of cul- 
tural methods, nor quite the high state of specialization, 
as in the Yakima and Wenatchee districts. Severe frost- 
injury has destroyed the crop in certain years and frost 
liability has somewhat deterred the development of the 
region. The Payette district was known as a hay and 
stock raising country long before an impetus was given to 
its apple industry. Although the orchards are small, com 






Leading Apple Regions of the United States 75 

siderable fertile land unplanted to trees offers oppor- 
tunity for diversification. 

Boise Valley. 

Much the same conditions obtain in the Boise Valley 
as in the Payette district, these two sections being only 
a few miles apart and having been developed under much 
the same conditions. Plantings in the Boise Valley are 
much more limited than in the Payette district. 

Twin Falls. 

In the extreme southern part of Idaho and in the vicin- 
ity of Twin Falls is an irrigated region which has intensive 
apple plantings, amounting to 4,000 or 5,000 acres, most 
of which have not attained full bearing and considerable 
of which have been taken out to provide for more general 
farming. The production in 1919 reached approximately 
500 cars and the output of the region may be expected 
to increase. Varieties and general orchard conditions 
are much the same as in the Payette district. 

Lewiston section. 

ISTear Lewiston in Xez Perce County, an irrigated pro- 
ject of 6,000 acres was planted largely in the period 1906 
to 1910. This was developed by a single company and 
was sold out in small tracts to investors who in some 
instances have taken up their residence and are develop- 
ing the subdivisions. Very few orchards have reached 
full bearing, and although they were planted and have 
been cared for on a strictly commercial basis, the future 
of the region can not be definitely determined at this time. 



76 The Commercial Apple Industry 

CALIFORNIA 

Watsonville district. 

The Pajaro Valley, centering about Watsonville, is the 
oldest and from the standpoint of total past production, 
one of the most important of the western apple regions. 
In later years, however, both the Yakima and Wenatchee 
valleys of Washington have far outstripped it in produc- 
tion. With the possible exception of the Wenatchee Val- 
ley, it is doubtful whether any apple region in the country 
exceeds the Watsonville district for intensity of planting. 
The most important orchards are included in an area of 
five by ten miles about the town of Watsonville. This 
limited area is responsible for nearly two-thirds of Cal- 
ifornia's commercial apple crop, and has a production 
record of almost 3,300,000 boxes of apples for a single 
season. 

Apple plantings were known to have been made in 
the Pajaro Valley in the early fifties. Commercial or- 
chards existed as early as 1870. The period of greatest 
commercial growth occurred in the decade 1890-1900. 
Crop failures are uncommon in the Pajaro and this valley 
has a very high record for annual production. Irriga- 
tion is little practiced, the normal annual rainfall of 
forty inches being sufiicient to insure heavy annual pro- 
duction. Yellow Xewtown is the leading variety and 
comprises over 50 per cent of the regional production.. 
Yellow Bellflower is next in importance while both Eedf ' 
and White Winter Pearmain, Langford Seedling and 
Missouri Pippin are grown in limited quantities. Red 
varieties, however, are not adapted to this region. 

A most peculiar system of handling the crop prevails 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 77 

in the Watsonville section. A large colony of Slavonians 
has for many years been closely identified with the indus- 
try in the buying and packing of apples. A large per- 
centage of the growers sell the fruit on the trees for a lump 
siun to these Slavonian packers, who care for the orchard, 
do such spraying, thinning and propping as is practiced, 
later harvesting and packing the fruit. Seasonal contracts 
are very often made at blooming time, although some 
growers contract their crops for a period of several years 
in advance. The speculative side of siTch transactions 
need not be emphasized. Disastrous crop failures may 
mean ruin for the buyer, while high prices very often 
mean large profits. The Slavonians assume the growers' 
risk and naturally require a margin commensurate with 
the risk. 

Despite many natural advantages, the Watsonville dis- 
trict has been slow to adopt high standards for the grade 
and pack of its fruit, and as a result it has not kept pace 
with northwest production in this respect. Cooperative 
handling and marketing has been developed to a limited 
extent among the progressive growers. Until recently, 
the California box (91/2^11x22), a slightly larger and 
longer box than that used in the Northwest, has been in 
most common use, as has also the straight line pack in- 
stead of the northwest diagonal pack. More recently a 
state law has sought to make the northwest box the stand- 
ard. Export trade normally absorbs a large portion of 
the Yellow Newtown production. The Yellow Bell- 
flowers are largely sold in domestic markets, many in 
California. 



78 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Sehastopol apple district. 

The Sehastopol apple district is considerably less 
important than the Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section 
and yet it is the second region in California. The most 
extensive plantings are in the vicinity of Sehastopol 
which is situated in Sonoma County about sixty miles 
north of San Francisco. This is the only distinctive early 
apple section in the West and has come to prominence 
largely through its production of Gravensteins, 

In normal years the shipments of fresh apples from 
this region seldom have exceeded 600 cars and most of 
these have been Gravensteins. The apple plantings are 
much more recent than those near Watsonville and an 
increased production may be expected. Sehastopol 
deserves mention as a dried apple center. In normal 
years more of its crop is dried than is shipped fresh. This 
section has produced as high as 2,000 tons of dried apples 
in a season. Among the winter varieties, Esopus (Spitz- 
enburg), Baldwin, Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower, 
and I\ome Beauty are more or less prominent. A large 
part of the production of the latter varieties is dried. 

There is little similarity between the t}'pe and charac- 
ter of the Sehastopol orchards and those of the more 
important Watsonville section. In the former, the or- 
chards conform more to the mountain type and are of al- 
most entirely different varieties than at Watsonville., 
Irrigation is not practiced. 

Yucaipa section. 

A third apple region has more recently developed in 
California in San Bernardino and Riverside counties in 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 79 

the extreme southern part of the state. The Yucaipa sec- 
tion, as it is knovvTi, consists largely of young more or less 
mountain plantings which, although limited in extent, are 
somewhat intensively cared for and will doubtless be 
responsible for an increasingly large production. Already 
this region has shipped as many as 200,000 boxes of apples 
in a season. 

Table III. — Average Production of the Leading Apple Dis- 
tricts OF THE West 

Average 
Districts. Production 

1916-1919. 
Packed Boxes. 

Wenatchee, Wash 6,686,675 

Yakima, Wash 6,015,250 

Watsonville, Cal 2,787,500 

South Idaho 1,894,750 

Western slope Colorado 1,492,500 

Hood River, Ore 1,625,000 

WISCONSIN 

Apples are grown largely in home orchards, most of 
which are distributed throughout the southeastern part of 
the state and particularly in the counties bordering Lake 
Michigan. Taking the state as a whole, Fameuse, Mcin- 
tosh, Oldenburg, Northwestern Greening, and Wealthy are 
the principal varieties. Harvesting period is somewhat 
later there than in some states. 

There are three limited commercial areas in the state: 
(1) The Sturgeon Bay district in Door County on Lake 
Michigan, in which heaviest plantings are about Sturgeon 
Bay, Egg Harbor, and Ephraim on the west shore of the 
peninsula; (2) limited plantings, chiefly about Richland 
Center in Richland County, Gays Mills in Crawford 
County and Baraboo in Sauk County in the southwestern 



80 Tlie Commercial Apple Industry 

part of the state; (3) Eaii Claire district in which limited 
plantings are found in Eau Claire, Chippewa, and Trem- 
pealeau counties. Duchess of Oldenburg and Wealthy 
are the leading varieties. 

MINNESOTA 

Minnesota is even less important commercially than 
Wisconsin, although there are many scattering home 
orchards through the south and particularly southeastern 
part of the state. In the vicinity of Lake Minnetonka, 
Long Lake and Howard Lake, in Hennepin, Meeker and 
Wright counties, are commercial plantings in which 
Wealthy, Patten's Greening, Hibernal, and the following 
crabs are grown: Llorence, Whitney, and Lyman's Pro- 
lific. Some of these apples are jumble packed in boxes 
and others shipped in baskets. Another very limited com- 
mercial area is in Houston and Winona counties, in the 
extreme southeastern part of the state. In addition to 
the varieties named above, Wealthy, Northwestern Green- 
ing, and Wolf River are common for Minnesota. Crabs 
are widely grown. 



EAELY APPLE REGIONS 



Only a few counties in the United States produce earl 
apples in quantity for commercial purposes. Early 
apples are grown to a greater or less extent in nearly all 
important apple regions and in nearly every farm orchard. 
By far the larger part of this production, however, is not 
strictly commercial, but is used only for local or home 
consumption. In this discussion particular attention wi 
be given to the few specialized early apple regions. 



I 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 81 

New York and New England. 

Although New York is not commonly considered a spe- 
cialized early apple region, there is a heavy production of 
such varieties as Oldenburg (Duchess), Twenty Ounce 
and Wealthy in the western part of the state. Alexander 
and Yellow Transparent are grown in more limited quan- 
tities. The plantings of Oldenburg (Duchess) and 
Wealthy are found particularly in Niagara County while 
Twenty Ounce is grown extensively in Monroe County, 
about the town of Hilton. Scattered plantings of 
Wealthy, Gravenstein, Oldenburg (Duchess), and Will- 
iams Early Eed are grown in the Hudson Valley, particu- 
larly near the Hudson Kiver in Dutchess, Columbia, 
Ulster, and Greene counties. Very few apples are moved 
out of New York prior to August 1st. With a good 
crop, however. New York has shipped as many as 
300,000 barrels of commercial early apples prior to 
September 15th, most of which originated in western 
New York. 

Early apple varieties for New England are largely the 
same as those given for the Hudson Valley, the most 
extensive plantings being in Worcester, Middlesex and 
Eranklin counties of Massachusetts. 

New Jersey. 

New Jersey, and particularly Monmouth County, has 
long been known as one of the most intensive early apple 
regions. Important early varieties for Monmouth County 
arc English Codling, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Gra- 
venstein, Red Astrachan and Twenty Ounce. New Jersey 
has still another intensive and even more important early 



83 The Commercial Apple Industry 

apple district which includes the counties of Burlington, 
Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland in the southwestern 
part of the state. The most intensive plantings of this re- 
gion are about the towns of Moorestown, Eiverton and 
Burlington, not far from Philadelphia. The leading va- 
rieties are Starr, Williams Early Red, Yellow Transparent 
and Wealthy, with lesser quantities of Red Astrachan, 
Oldenburg (Duchess), and Early Ripe. 

New Jersey as a whole is one of the leading early 
apple states of the Union. Its commercial production 
comes largely from the two regions described and has 
amounted to the equivalent of approximately 200,000 
barrels in a good crop year. 

Delaware. 

Delaware is the most intensive early apple state in this 
coimtry and at the present time 150,000 barrels of early 
apples would not be an excessive crop for the state as a 
whole. The most intensive plantings are in Kent and 
Sussex counties, about the towns of Wyoming, Bridge- 
ville and Seaford. Yellow Transparent, Williams Early 
Red, Wealthy and Early Ripe are leading varieties. 
Twenty Ounce, Red Astrachan and Oldenburg (Duchess) 
are grown to a more limited extent. The early apple 
industry in Delaware is showing a marked growth at 
present. It is the only important region outside of ISTew 
Jersey and southern Illinois which is able to put its fruit 
on the market in any great quantity prior to August first. 
The favorite method of marketing the fruit is in %-bushel 
baskets. The Delaware early apple district extends into 
the eastern shore of Maryland. 



I 



I 



Leading Apple Regions of the United States 83 

Southern and Middle Atlantic states. 

Yellow Transparent is the leading variety in the more 
southern districts. Early apple plantings, however, are 
more or less scattered and limited in extent. The produc- 
tion of Yellow Transparent in the vicinity of Bowling 
Green, Kentucky, and central Tennessee is increasing. 

East North Central states. 

Along the north side of the Ohio River in Ohio and 
Indiana are considerable plantings of early varieties, par- 
ticularly of Oldenburg (Duchess) and Yellow Transpar- 
ent. Large commercial plantings of the latter variety are 
also found in central Ohio. 

In Michigan and Wisconsin the Oldenburg (Duchess) 
and Wealthy are prominent varieties. Their maturity, 
however, is greatly delayed in these regions with the result 
that they enter the market too late to be classed as distinctly 
early varieties. 

Southern Illinois. 

One of the most intensive early apple regions in the 
country is in the extreme southern part of Illinois. Union 
and Johnson are the leading counties and include extensive 
plantings of Benoni, Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg 
(Duchess), Sops of Wine, Red June, Chenango, and 
Cornell Red Streak. This region has produced as many 
as 800 cars of early apples in a season. Production is 
likely to increase. 

California. 

Scattered plantings of early apples are found throughout 



84 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the western states, but they are relatively limited and 
unimportant commercially with the exception of the Sebas- 
topol region of Sonoma County, California. This region 
has become well known through its production of Graven- 
steins, shipping over 500 cars of this variety in a single 
season. 



■^1 



CHAPTEE III 

COMMERCIAL APPLE PRODUCTION IN 

CANADA, AUSTRALIA AND 

NEW ZEALAND 

United States is far ahead of any other country in the 
production of commercial apples. Only in some of the 
British Dominions has apple-growing attained commercial 
proportions on an organized scale. England, France, Ger- 
many, Russia and many parts of Europe have enormous 
numbers of apple trees but most of the fruit does not enter 
the world market, and in France nearly 90 per cent of the 
crop is used for cider or beverage purposes. Europe 
depends on United States, Canada, Australia and New Zea- 
land for its supply of high grade fruit. South Africa is 
developing commercial apple-growing but as yet the pro- 
duction is not a factor in the world's markets. 

CANADA 

Canada at present (1920) will normally produce from 
18 to 20 per cent as many commercial apples as the United 
States. The last decennial census (1911) credited Canada 
with 16,217,176 trees, about 60 per cent of which were 
then bearing. Apples are grown commercially in British 
Columbia, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Quebec, New Brunswick 
and Prince Edward Island, but the principal commercial 
sections are in the first three provinces. The commercial 

85 



86 The Commercial Apple Industry 

crop in 1912 was estimated at 5,000,000 barrels. An 
estimate of 3,568,000 barrejs was made for 1918, of which 
British Columbia produced 459,300, Xova Scotia 808,600, 
Quebec and New Brunswick perhaps 100,000, leaving 
Ontario with an estimated production of 2,200,000 barrels. 
In 1919, the Canadian crop amounted to 1,500,000 barrels 
in Nova Scotia alone. 

The exports of apples from Canada for the past eleven 
years have been as follows : 

Table IV. — Apple Exports from Canada 

1909 1,604,477 

1910 523,658 

1911 1,664,165 

1912 1,324,769 

1913 947,382 

1914 1,117,336 

1915 557,451 

1916 570,854 

1917 103,626 

1918 405,058 

1919 591,805 

For the five years from 1909 to 1913, the average export 
was 1,212,000 barrels, while the average for the years 
1914 to 1918 was only 510,865. This, of course, is partly 
due to the British embargo on apples in 1917. About 90 
per cent of the Canadian exports are to Great Britain 
under ordinary circumstances. 

Nova Scotia (Plate VI). 

The commercial apple-growing district embraces a com- 
paratively small area, roughly described as the Annapolis 
Valley, about one hundred miles long and from six to eleven 
miles wide. The principal apple-growing counties are 
Kings, Annapolis and Hants, which produce about 75 per 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 87 

cent of the total crop. The commercial production in 
JX^ova Scotia for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive, together 
with the exports, are as follows : 

Table V. — Production and Exports of Apples in Nova Scotia 

Commercial 
Tear. Production. Exports. 

(Bbls.) (Bbls.) 

1911 1,734,876 1,408,700 

1912 993,523 801,000 

1913 651,390 519,582 

1914 981,437 752,500 

1915 613,882 416,500 

1916 681,470 416,808 

1917 744,730 13,700 

1918 808,600 271,170 

1919 1,500,000 492,180 

During the past five war years, production has undoubt- 
edly suffered through lack of care and it is probable that 
planting in ISTova Scotia in the last ten years has not been 
more than sufficient to take care of the average annual 
mortality. Some fairly large orchards, however, are only 
now coming into bearing, and it seems reasonable to expect 
an annual commercial crop in I^ova Scotia for the next 
decade of about 1,000,000 barrels. 

The leading commercial varieties of this district are the 
King, Gravenstein, Golden Russet, Roxbury Russet, 
Blenheim Orange, Ribston, Baldwin, Bishop Pippin (Bell- 
flower), Stark and Ben Davis. The Nova Scotian Grav- 
enstein, King, Blenheim and Russet are particularly well 
and favorably known on the English markets. The Grav- 
enstein is undoubtedly the outstanding variety. 

The climatic conditions are particularly favorable inas- 
much as the apple area is practically an island, preventing 
extremes of temperature, and irrigation is, of course, 
unnecessary. Clean cultivation is the general rule, about 



88 The Commercial Apple Industry 

50 per cent of the orchards depending almost solely on 
commercial fertilizers. 

For many years xsTova Scotia has shipped her surplus 
crop to Great Britain, principally to London. Her ship- 
pers are particularly well situated to take advantage of 
this trade as they are all within a few hours of the ports 
of Halifax and St. John. 

The chief disadvantage of the district is its comparative 
isolation from the large home markets. In order to com- 
pete with Ontario fruit on the large consuming markets of 
the northwestern provinces, ]Nova Scotian shippers start 
with a handicap of a rail haul of over twenty-four hours. 
With the European market open, this is not serious inas- 
much as this market is capable of some extension. 

Prince Edward Island and New Brunswich. 

Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick do not grow 
enough apples for home consumption at the present time. 
Both these provinces, however, possess large areas with a 
soil and climate well adapted to the commercial production 
of the hardier varieties. Prince Edward Island has suf- 
fered in the past from the poor transportation between the 
island and the mainland but this has improved of lateJi 
and the apple industry should consequently be encouraged.* 

The St. John Valley of New Brunswick has excellent 
prospects as a commercial apple-growing district, and it is 
probable that the next ten years will show a very marked 
increase in the production in this province, which during 
the past decade ranged from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels. 
Fairly low temperatures are experienced in the winter, 
and the leading varieties are the Duchess, Fameuse, Alex- 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 89 

ander, Mcintosh Red, Wolf River and Bethel. Most of 
the orchards are in sod. Transportation facilities are 
good from the St. John Valley, and its nearness to the sea- 
board would be a decided advantage when the production 
is sufficient to make an export trade desirable. 

Quebec. 

Apples have been grown in Quebec longer perhaps than 
in any other district in Canada, with the exception of Nova 
Scotia, records showing that they were produced in this 
province as early as 1663. The industry, however, has not 
developed to any great extent. The Fameuse is claimed 
to have originated in Quebec, and it and other varieties of 
the same type (Wealthy, Mcintosh Red, St. Lawrence) 
reach a very high state of perfection. Pomme Grise, or 
French Russet, as it is sometimes called, has long been 
grown in Quebec. The commercial production is confined 
largely to the Island of Montreal, Como, LaTrappe, St. 
Joseph du Lac, Hemmingford and Covey Hill, Chateau- 
guay, St. Hilaire, Rougemont and Abbotsford districts. 
The Census of 1911 gave the production of Quebec as over 
400,000 barrels, but it is not probable that the average 
annual commercial production of the past two or three 
years has been more than 100,000 barrels. The orchards 
are principally in sod, many of them have not received 
proper attention and, in addition, it is estimated that fully 
40 per cent of the trees were destroyed by the severe win- 
ter of 1917. There is evidence, however, of a revival in 
apple-growing, and some of the highest average returns for 
Canadian apples, in late years, have been made by Quebec 
orchardists. 



90 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Ontario. 

Ontario still produces considerably over 50 per cent of 
the crop of apples in Canada, but only in limited areas is 
the industry specialized as it is in ^ova Scotia and British 
Columbia. The exports in the past ten ye^ars have not 
been nearly so great as those of Xova Scotia, but this is 
due to the many large markets within the province, to the 
greater ease with which the Ontario shippers can reach the 
markets of the N"orthwest, which have been tremendously 
developed during the past decade, to the fact that the ports 
of export are not as convenient to Ontario shippers as to 
those of Nova Scotia and, particularly in the past four or 
five years, to the great risk and uncertainty attending ocean 
transportation. In the eastern part of the province, along 
the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, are some very fine 
orchards of the Duchess, Wealthy, Mcintosh Red and 
Fameuse type. The Mcintosh Red, which for some years 
has been the highest priced apple on the Canadian markets, 
was originated at the town of Dundela in the County of 
Dundas in this district in 1830. 

The largest orchards of Ontario are between Kingston 
and Toronto in what is commonly known as the Lake 
Ontario district. Prince Edward County, the southern 
part of Hastings, Northumberland, Durham and the south- 
ern part of the County of Ontario, grow all the standard 
varieties, and ship thousands of cars of apples annually to 
the large eastern markets and to the markets of Canadian 
Northwest. In addition, this section does a large export 
trade with Great Britain. The leading varieties for export 
are the Baldwin, Spy, King, Russet, Ontario, Pewaukee, 
Stark and Ben Davis, but large quantities of Duchess, 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 91 

Wealthy, Fameuse, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Tol- 
man, Canada Red, and Cranberrj, are also produced. 
Many of the orchards in this district are more than a hun- 
dred years old, and the apple industry is perhaps more spe- 
cialized and better organized than in any other part of On- 
tario. An outstanding feature of the apples grown here is 
their keeping quality. The climatic conditions are such 
that the trees do not start into growth as early as in south- 
ern Ontario and yet the season is sufficiently long for the 
best varieties to mature. Consequently the apples are just 
ready to pick at the approach of freezing weather and, 
when stored in ordinary warehouses, go into a natural cold 
storage where they retain their keeping qualities until the 
following spring. This saves the cost of cold storage, giv- 
ing the shippers of this district a considerable advantage 
over more southern regions. Large storehouses have been 
erected along the railway lines at such points as Belleville, 
Trenton, Brighton, Colbome, Grafton, Port Hope, N^^ew- 
castle, Bowmanville, Oshawa and Whitby. Colborne, for 
example, has over a dozen warehouses, with a capacity of 
more than 100,000 barrels. 

In southwestern Ontario (including the Niagara 
Peninsula), while apples of high quality are produced in 
considerable quantities, the industry is not specialized, 
except in a few localities, such as Norfolk and Lambton 
counties. This district, however, has one great advantage 
as it is able to get its early apples on the market about two 
weeks earlier than an;y other part of eastern Canada. 

Throughout western Ontario, particularly along the 
shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, large quantities 
of apples of the standard varieties are grown. In the 
Georgian Bay district, the conditions are very similar to 



92 The Commercial Apple Industry 

those in the region north of Lake Ontario, and orcharding 
is carried on as a special industry, but in the greater part 
of western Ontario the apple orchard is usually a side line 
to general farming, and consequently the same attention is 
not given to the details of spraying, pruning, cultivating, 
packing and marketing as in the districts where apple- 
growing is the main industry. In the aggregate, however, 
the crop of western Ontario has a very marked influence on 
the commercial production of the province. The leading 
varieties are the Spy, Baldwin, King, Greening, Ben 
Davis and other standard sorts but as the distance from 
Lake Huron and Georgian Bay increases, the earlier and 
hardier varieties are more in evidence. 

British Columbia. 

The apple industry in this province is comparatively 
new, but has developed rapidly and along highly specialized 
lines, so that it is now a considerable factor in the market- 
able crop of Canada. The Dominion Census of 1901 
credited British Columbia with 220,000 bearing and 170,- 
960 non-bearing apple trees, while in 1911 the figures were 
510,763 bearing and 1,465,622 non-bearing trees; and the 
increase in the last nine years has probably been fully 50 
per cent. Following is a statement of the commercial pro- 
duction for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive: 

Table VI. — Production of Apples in British Columbia 

Year. Boxes. 

1911 225,100 

1912 386,640 

1913 456,380 

1914 615,600 

1915 993,060 

1916 1,376,310 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 93 

Year. Boxes. 

1917 1,785,405 

1918 1,378,005 

1919 •. 2,500,000 

Many thousands of acres have just come into bearing 
within the past two or three years, while a considerable 
acreage is still not bearing commercial crops, and there 
will undoubtedly be a steadily increasing production for 
the next decade. To offset this, however, consideration 
should be given to the fact that there has been very little 
planting in the past iive years and in addition the orchards 
of British Columbia have in some cases suffered through 
lack of care. 

The most noted section is the Okanogan Valley, where 
the Coldstream Ranch, consisting of some 600 acres o-f 
orchard in various stages, is located ; this was established 
about tTventy years ago by Lord Aberdeen when Governor 
General of Canada, and is one of the oldest commercial 
orchards in the province. While the Okanogan is the 
largest section, in point of acreage devoted to apple-grow- 
ing, thousands of acres of orchard have been planted during 
the past ten or twenty years in the Arrow Lakes, Kootenay 
and contigTious districts, along the Thompson and Fraser 
rivers to the Coast, and also on the Island of Vancouver. 

The climatic conditions are very varied, both dry and 
wet growing seasons being found in the different fruit 
regions. In the Okanogan, a very extensive system of 
irrigation is in operation. The district being new, it has 
not yet suffered to any serious extent from the insect pests 
and diseases common to the more established fruit sections. 
In addition, a very rigid system of inspecting imported 
nursery stock has been in force for many years. The 



94 The Commercial Apple Industry 

apples are generally large in size, possibly owing to the 
fact that most of them are produced on young trees, are 
usually very highly colored and of high quality and, 
packed in boxes, reach the market in excellent condition. 

Practically all the standard varieties of the East 
(Wealthy, Duchess, Mcintosh Red, Spy, Wagener) are 
produced in large quantities in British Columbia, but in 
addition the Jonathan, l^evrtown, Rome Beauty, Winesap, 
Ontario, Grimes Golden, Winter Banana and Esopus 
(Spitzenburg) are grown to perfection. The crop is mar- 
keted principally within the province and throughout 
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. When there are 
light crops in eastern Canada, comparatively large quan- 
tities of British Columbia apples have been shipped to 
Toronto, Montreal and Quebec and as far east as St. John, 
New Brunswick. Up to the present time, the largest ex- 
port trade has been with Australia and New Zealand, the 
following table showing the exports to these countries 
during the years 1913 to 1917 inclusive: 

Table VII. — Exports to Australia and New Zealand 

Year. Boxes. 

1913 31,127 

1914 40,816 

1915 54,592 

1916 70,000' 

1917 76,000 

In 1918, owing to the Australian embargo on apples, 
there were no exports to that country, and only some 
15,000 boxes to New Zealand. 

British Columbia apples have also been exported to the 
markets of Great Britain, South America, the West Indies 
and South Africa, and an outlet is, therefore, being pre- 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 95 

pared to takq care profitably of the anticipated increase in 
production. 

AUSTRAI.IA AND NEW ZEALAND 

Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand have claimed 
attention in the commercial apple world only within recent 
years. Outside of North America, these countries are now 
the most important commercial apple regions in the world. 
The area in bearing apple trees is about 50,000 acres in 
Australia mainland, 25,000 acres in Tasmania and 15,000 
acres in New Zealand and in all cases the acreage is increas- 
ing. The acreage of New Zealand is strictly commercial 
while some of that of Australia and Tasmania is not. The 
export to foreign markets amounts to several million boxes, 
and promises to increase. The commercial production of 
Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania is now about one- 
half that of Canada and one-tenth that of United States. 

On the mainland of Australia, the orchard areas are 
principally along the coast, the larger portion being in 
the southern states and along the southwest coast of west 
Australia. In Tasmania the plantings are general and 
the only sections unsuitable for fruit-culture are the mid- 
lands along the west coast. In New Zealand the distribu- 
tion is fairly general in both north and south islands except 
on the west coast. The main commercial plantings, how- 
ever, are in the Nelson-Auckland districts. 

The bulk of the crop in Australia, Tasmania and New 
Zealand is at the present time consumed locally, the annual 
foreign exports amounting to about one-fourth of the pro- 
duction. The principal outlet or foreign markets for these 
apples have been England and Germany, and the export 
trade prior to the war was increasing very rapidly. 



96 The Commercial Apple Industry 

From about 1910 to 1915, the plantings were very 
heavy but owing to war conditions and the consequent 
dislocation of markets, there has been very little increase 
in areas in trees since that date. However, with the re- 
turn to normal conditions one may expect to see a decided 
spurt in planting. The tendency is to specialize in small 
holdings in order to overcome labor difficulties, and in some 
districts apple-growing is combined with general farming. 
The average orchard has from fifteen to twenty-five acres, 
so that most individual plantings are small. In this re- 
spect it is more like the northwestern orchards than the 
barreled apple sections of eastern United States. 

The harvest season for Australian apples is a long one. 
Trees are picked over for the largest fruit about every 
two weeks from the middle of February to the middle of 
April, for export to England and foreign markets. The 
remainder of the crop and those varieties maturing too 
late for export are picked and stored either in packing- 
houses, in orchards, or in common storage and are then 
packed out at the o^vner's discretion. This means that 
fruit is being packed out nearly all the year. Picking and 
packing is nearly all by day labor. The fruit is wrapped 
and packed in a similar manner to the northwestern 
method. No standardization of grades has thus far been 
attempted, each individual grower making his own grades. 
The bulk of the Australian apples is harvested from Feb- 
ruary to May and reaches the foreign markets during April, 
May and June. They could be placed on American mar- 
kets from March to August. In shipping the fruit, it is 
usually packed in bulk or boxes containing one imperial 
bushel or half bushel. Many canning factories buy fruit 
by weight. The general export varieties of Australia, 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 9?" 

Tasmania and New Zealand are quite different from the 
sorts grown in the United States, although in many cases 
the more important Australian varieties are very important 
commercially in this country. The following gives the 
general export varieties somewhat in order of their im- 
portance : 

VicTOBiA Tasmania New Zealand 

Jonathan Sturmer Dunn's 

Ortley (Cleopatra) Ortley Coxe's Orange Pippin 

Dunn's Scarlet Nonpareil Sturmer 

Reinette Jonathan Jonathan 

Coxe's Orange Pippin Coxe's Orange Pippin Yates 

Sturmer Ribston 

Emperor Alexander Worcester 

London Pippin 

These varieties are among the more important, although 
others are constantly increasing. Jonathan is increasing 
everywhere on account of its good bearing qualities and 
relative freedom from diseases. Delicious is still in its 
infancy, but is taking well with both producer and con- 
sumer, and promises to increase rapidly. Esopus (Spitz- 
enburg) is going out of favor as it is very subject to scab 
and is a biennial bearer. The Stayman is coming into 
favor' in New Zealand. 

In the care of the orchard, much the same method is 
followed as in the northwestern orchards, although very 
few sections are irrigated. 

The trees are pruned on similar lines in Australia, Tas- 
mania and New Zealand. They are usually cut back very 
severely for the first five years, and growers favor a strong 
frame-work of twelve to sixteen limbs, at as nearly equal 
distances from each other as possible; thereafter lighter 
pruning is practiced as trees come into bearing. The trees 



98 The Commercial Apple Industry 



\ 



are formed with an open center to admit light, thus en- 
couraging fruiting, particularly in the lower part of the 
tree. Strong fruit-spurs on the main limbs are preferred, 
but laterals are used on some varieties, notably the Jona- 
than, in order to bring extra vigorous growers into earlier 
bearing. Most trees are planted from sixteen to twenty 
feet apart, and the orchards are kept more compact than 
in the Northwest. Australian growers claim that this 
gives greater efficiency in the orchard operations. The 
ladder is seldom needed for picking or pruning for the 
first ten years. The closer planting makes the yield to 
the acre equal to that of America. No doubt when these 
orchards obtain considerable age, the disadvantages of this 
closer planting system will be brought out. 

The orchards are cultivated much the same as in 
America, and commercial fertilizers are used very exten- 
sively. It is also a common practice to sow cover-crops. 
Thinning the fruit is not a general practice and many 
growers try to combat over-cropping by systematic bud or 
spur thinning, Australian growers have not found that 
thinning has any marked effect in making annual bearers 
of those varieties given to biennial bearing. i| 

Many of the same diseases and insects are prevalent as 
in America. The black-spot or scab is the worst disease 
with which the Australian growers have to contend. 
Woolly aphis (Australian blight) comes next, closely fol- 
lowed by the codlin-moth. In some of the more humid 
districts, mildew seriously affects many varieties. Bitter- 
pit has been especially bad on young trees. Fire-blight is 
not yet known. 

Cooperative marketing is as yet little in evidence ex- 
cept in the direction and management of cold-storage 



Canada, Australia and New Zealand 99 

houses. Such propositions as these were formerly in the 
hands of the government, but under the cooperative man- 
agement the charges have been reduced. Cooperation in 
this respect is increasing rapidly, especially in Victoria 
on the mainland. The Northwest in the United States is 
far ahead of Australia in cooperative methods of handling 
and distributing. 

The Australians are agreed that they may learn much 
from America in the equipment of packing-houses, es- 
pecially on labor-saving devices. Many Australians are 
particularly proud of their pruning methods and in this 
respect they are convinced that the American orchardist 
might learn something from them. 



CHAPTER IV 

LOCALITY AND SITE FOR THE COMMERCIAL 
ORCHARD 

Before investing in an apple orchard, both the locality 
and specific sit© should be carefully considered. Cir- 
cumstances may often prevent the free choice of a locality, 
but the site of the orchard is usually within the direct 
control of the grower, and may determine largely the suc- 
cess of the enterprise. 

CHOOSING THE LOCALITY 

The fruit-grower should know the advantages and dis- 
advantages of the different apple-producing regions ; there- 
fore, each important apple region will be discussed briefly 
and some of the factors of interest in this connection set 
down. In Chapter V will be discussed the factors which 
govern the proper selection of the site for an orchard 
within a given region. 



WESTERN NEW YORK 

Advantages. 

1. Western New York is an established, well developed ani 
productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for 
over a century. 

2. Land values have been reasonable in comparison with those 
in other apple regions. 

3. The bulk of the production is of standard commercial 
varieties well adapted to the section. 

100 



I 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 101 

4. Western New York is a stable progressive region, where 
land booms do not flourish and where there is not over-special- 
ization of any particular crop. 

5. It enjoys proximity to market and has excellent facilities 
for storing and handling fruit. 

6. The land is easily worked and the maintenance cost is not 
excessive. 

7. This region is rather densely populated and sufficient labor 
is usually available from the nearby towns and cities during 
harvest time. 

8. Good yields. 

Disadvantages. 

1. The varieties, Baldwin and Greening, for which this sec- 
tion is best known, are not of the highest quality and as a rule 
under-sell such varieties as Winesap, Jonathan and Grimes. 

2. Orchards are susceptible to scab and in many cases the 
crop has been practically ruined and the percentage of high- 
grade fruit cut to a minimum on account of this disease. 

3. The average orchard in western New York does not receive 
the highly intensive care which characterizes some other regions. 
This disadvantage can be remedied by the individual owner, 
however, and is not inherent to the region. 

4. Bearing orchards are well advanced in years and do not 
as a rule bear the high percentage of fancy fruit which may be 
expected from young trees. 

5. Trees are slow coming into bearing. 

6. Rigorous winters are common. 

HUDSON VALLEY 

Advantages. 

1. The Hudson Valley enjoys the distinct advantage of close 
proximity to market. The growers in this region are enabled 
to keep in intimate touch with trade conditions in New York 
City and are able to place their fruit on the market within a 
few hours from the time it is shipped. 

2. Fancy trade varieties of apples can be grown profitably and 



103 The Commercial Apple Industry 

marketed successfully by catering to specialized trade. Such 
varieties as Mcintosh, Northern Spy, Oldenburg (Duchess), 
Gravenstein, Wealthy and Fall Pippin, which are adapted to 
this region, lend themselves well to the development of sucli 
trade. 

3. Land values have been very reasonable in the Hudson 
Valley. 

Disadvantages. 

1. The annual yields of the Hudson Valley are smaller than 
those of western New York; also smaller than the Shenandoah- 
Cumberland region. 

2. On the whole the soil is not as rich as in western New 
York and, although adapted to many varieties, requires con- 
siderable fertilization in some instances to secure good annual 
crops. ' 

3. Orchards are not entirely free from occasional severe 
winter injury. 

4. Land does not lend itself so well to general farming and is 
in places quite rolling. 

5. Rigorous winters are common. 

CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT 

Advantages. ^fl 

1. The Champlain district, bordering Lake Champlain and 
Lake George in New York and Vermont, is especially adapted 
to such high quality varieties as Northern Spy and Mcintosh. 

2. The high prices for its fruit, fair yields and reasonable 
proximity to irnportant markets argue in favor of this region. 



Disadvantages. 

1. Trees in this region are rather slow growing, seldom attain 
the size, and do not as a rule produce the high annual crops 
common to western New York. 

2. Although Mcintosh seems to be reasonably safe from 
winter-injury, other varieties occasionally suffer severely from 
winter-killing. 



il 




Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 103 

3. This locality is not of sufficient size to warrant the com- 
petition among the buyers which is generally found in the larger 
districts. 

4. The region is less accessible than such districts as the 
Hudson Valley. 

6. Rigorous winters are common. 

NEW ENGLAND 

Advantages. 

1. The outstanding advantage of New England orchards is 
their proximity to centers of consumption such as Boston and 
other large cities. 

2. Foreign export trade draws rather heavily on New England 
production, particularly has it been partial to Maine Baldwins. 

3. Land values are reasonable. 

4. The revived interest in apple-growing is serving to bring 
to prominence a number of specialized districts which are capa- 
ble of producing exceptionally fine fruit. An instance is the 
Wilton district in southern New Hampshire. 

5. Particular localities in New England are suited for growers 
who desire to specialize on such fancy varieties as Mcintosh and 
Wealthy for which a special trade can be built up. 

Disadvantages. 

1. In general, New England orchards are small, rather 
scraggy, and include relatively few highly commercial and in- 
tensive plantings such as are found in western New York and 
the Shenandoah-Cumberland region. 

2. Scattered plantings and limited production from any par- 
ticular region naturally limit the possibility of cooperative effort 
among growers in marketing their fruit at the highest prices. 

3. The industry and production of New England as a whole 
has declined very materially in the ten years prior to 1919. The 
future of apple-growing in this region probably depends on the 
development of small specialized projects rather than on large 
or general commercial planting. 

4. Rigorous winters are common. 



104 The Commercial Apple Industry 

NEW JERSEY-DELAWARE PENINSULA 

Advantages. 

1. This region enjoys an almost unequaled advantage of close 
proximity to New York and Philadelphia markets. 

2. It is adapted to the production of varieties such as Yellow 
Transparent, Wealthy, Williams, Early Ripe and Starr. South- 
ern New Jersey is particularly suited to the production of 
Yellow Transparent, Williams, Early Kipe and Starr, while 
English Codling, Gravenstein, Duchess, Twenty Ounce and 
Wealthy are well suited to Monmouth County. 

3. Orchards in this region respond to good care, and, although 
fertilization is sometimes necessary, are generally productive. 

4. Cost of production in this section has not been excessively 
high and good prices have made the orchards profitable as a 
rule. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Orchard diseases and pests present a somewhat difficult 
problem for the commercial grower. Late attacks of codling- 
moth are occasionally very destructive. 

2. This region is not as well adapted to the growing of winter 
varieties as some of the other eastern districts. 

SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND REGION 

Included in this region are the following important apple 
counties of southern Pennsylvania : Adams, Franklin and 
York; also Washington County, Maryland; Berkeley and ad- 
joining Panhandle counties of West Virginia, and the Shenan- 
doah Valley of Virginia. 

Advantages. 

1. A large part of the apple acreage of this region is just 
coming into bearing and an increased production of high-grade 
fruit may be expected from this young and well-cared-for 
acreage. 

2. The leading varieties, York Imperial, Ben Davis, Stay- 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 105 

man and Grimes, comprise the bulk of the production and are 
well known as profitable varieties. 

3. Yields average with those of the best eastern orchards. 

4. The region enjoys reasonable proximity to markets. 

6. Centralization and intensity of plantings offer excellent 
opportunity for cooperation and regional development. 
6. Fairly cheap labor is ordinarily available. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Although one of the most promising eastern apple regions, 
the Shenandoah-Cumberland is not entirely free from certain 
disadvantages. Cedar rust is severe in some parts of this region 
on York Imperial and Ben Davis trees; pine and meadow mice 
have been doing considerable damage to many of the trees and 
root-rot occurs in some localities. 

2. Land values at this time are relatively high, and for that 
reason the prospective investor would need considerable capital 
to get started. 

3. Hail injury is not uncommon. 

PIEDMONT REGION OF VIRGINIA 

Advantages. 

1. For scenic beauty this region is unexcelled. 

2. Land is cheap and plentiful. Orchard values have been 
fairly reasonable. 

3. Good transportation facilities. 

4. Labor conditions are generally satisfactory throughout the 
region. 

5. High-grade varieties such as Winesap and Yellow New- 
town (Albemarle Pippin) predominate and sell for high prices. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Bitter-rot is particularly injurious in certain seasons. 

2. Yields are lighter than in the Shenandoah-Cumberland or 
western New York regions. . 

3. The orchard land is generally mountainous and somewhat 
hard to work. 



106 The Commercial Apple Industry 

4, Very poor roads occur in some localities and some of the 
best apple land is relatively inaccessible. 

5. Hail damage is very common, particularly on higher ele- 
vations, and unfavorable conditions are often present at bloom- 
ing time, rendering the crop uncertain. 

SOUTHERN OHIO ROME BEAUTY SECTION 

Advantages. 

1. Land values have been relatively reasonable in price. 

2. The region is fairly close to important markets. 

3. Quality of fruit, particularly that of the Rome Beauty, 
is good. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Yields are generally lower than in western New York or 
most other eastern districts. 

2. The land is rough and mountainous and the orchard plant- 
ings are somewhat isolated. 

3. Much of the fruit has to be ferried across the Ohio River. 

4. Frost-injury does occasional damage in the spring. 

5. The soil is naturally poor and requires considerable fertil- 
ization, particularly in the form of nitrates. 

WESTERN MICHIGAN 

Advantages. 

1. Western Michigan is an established, well developed and 
productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for 
many years. 

2. Land values have been reasonable. 

3. It enjoys proximity to important markets in large central 
west cities. 

4. Yields are good. 

5. Higher quality varieties are grown in Michigan than in 
most other middle western states. 

Disadvantages. 
1. Frost-injury is not uncommon. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 107 

2. There are many old and rather neglected orchards, partic- 
ularly in the south and southeastern part of the state which 
lower the quality of the general output from the state. 

3. Michigan orchards are susceptible to apple-scab and in 
some cases the crop has been severely injured on account of 
prevalence of this disease. 

4. Winter-injury to trees is not uncommon. 

ILLINOIS 

Advantages. 

1. Proximity to markets. 

2. Relatively good yields in western Illinois, but rather light 
yields in southern part of the state. 

3. Orchard values have been relatively low in comparison with 
land values. 

4. Early apple section in extreme southern Illinois is partic- 
ularly adapted to the production of early varieties. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent and blister- 
canker has caused considerable loss among Ben Davis and Gano 
plantings. 

2. Apple plantings are less centralized than in most commer- 
cial districts and community interest is lacking in some 
instances. 

3. Quality of fruit is variable. Such low-grade varieties as 
Ben Davis and Willow Twig predominate in many regions. 

4. Unfavorable climatic conditions at blooming time are not 
uncommon. 

OZARK REGION 

This region includes intensive apple plantings in northwest 
Arkansas and southwest Missouri. 

Advantages. 

1. Labor conditions usually favorable. 

2. Possibility for the renovation of old orchards. 



108 The Commercial Apple Industry 

3. Yield and quality in well-cared-for orchards good in certain 
years. 

4. Land values reasonable. 

Disadvcmtages. 

1. The region has many old and neglected orchards which 
decidedly detract from community spirit and progressiveness 
and lower the quality of the output from the region as a whole. 

2. Ben Davis and Gano plantings which predominate are 
particularly susceptible to very serious attacks of blister-canker. 

3. Unfavorable weather at blooming time often prevails and 
crop failures are not uncommon. 

4. Average yields low. 

5. System of bulk handling of a large part of the crop is 
not conducive to close grading and the maintenance of high 
commercial standards. 

MISSOURI RIVER REGION 

In this region are included the intensive commercial apple 
districts of northwestern Missouri, northeastern Kansas, south- 
eastern Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa, in what is sometimes 
called the loess soil apple region. 

Advantages. 

1. A progressive* spirit prevails to a greater extent than among 
most other middle western regions. 

2. The loess soil of this region is exceptionally fertile and 
exceptionally productive. 

3. Yields are good on the well-cared-for orchards. 

4. Although Ben Davis and Gano predominate, considerable 
importance is being given to Jonathan and Winesap plantings 
which do very well in this region. 



« 



Disadvantages. 

1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent. 

2. Unfavorable weather conditions at blooming time are not 
uncommon. 



I 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 109 

3. The region is not entirely free from many old and neglected 
orchards, particularly throughout northwestern Missouri. 

4. The bulk handling of a large part of the crop does not 
encourage high uniform grades. 

WESTERN SLOPE OF COLORADO 

In this region are included Mesa, Montrose and Delta counties. 

Advantages. 

1. This enjoys the advantage of being closer to eastern 
markets than the other boxed apple regions. 

2. Although the orchard land is somewhat spotted, high qual- 
ity fruit and good yields are possible in favorable seasons. 

3. Facilities for handling and marketing the crop are fairly 
well developed. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Much unsuitable land has been planted and exploited to 
the disadvantage of the incautious investor. 

2. This region includes some very fine orchards and at the 
same time some very poor ones, making generalities very difficult. 

3. The average yields are not as high as in the Northwest. 

4. Frost-injury in the spring occasionally causes heavy loss, 
particularly in the Grand Valley. The menace of the codlin- 
moth is another factor which should be considered by the pros- 
pective investor. 

5. Alkali seep has destroyed entire areas of orchard lands in 
certain localities, particularly in parts of the Grand Valley. 

6. Distance from market. 

UTAH 

Commercial apples in Utah are produced almost entirely in 
the irrigated valleys along the western slope of the Wasatch 
Mountains. Important counties are Boxelder, Weber, Davis 
and Ftah, which include many commercial apple plantings. 
Conditions are somewhat variable, but in the main the advant- 
ages are: 



110 The Commercial Apple Industry 

1. A somewhat greater local demand for apples than occurs in 
the Northwest. 

2. Lower orchard values. 

3. Good quality fruit and considerable young acreage. 

Disadvantages. 

1. In some instances unsuited land has been set to apple trees 
and conditions are variable. 

2. Annual yields, although very good, are somewhat less than 
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys. 

3. The limited size of the industry does not permit of the 
development of marketing facilities such as may prevail in 
heavier producing regions. 

4. Frost damage is occasionally severe. 

roAHo 

Heaviest commercial apple plantings in Idaho are in the 
Payette and Boise valleys, tributary to such towns as Payette, 
Fruitland, Caldwell and Boise. The advantages of this region 
are: 

1. Young acreage, very little of which has attained full bear- 
ing and most of which is relatively free from insects and 
diseases. 

2. Quality of the fruit is excellent, particularly Jonathan, 
which is the leading variety. 

3. Yields are good, but somewhat lower than in the Yakima 
and Wenatchee regions. 

4. Orchard values are somewhat lower than in some of the 
other northwestern orchard sections. The region described is 
a very good general farming section, having a rich soil which 
responds well to irrigation, a universal practice. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Some unsuited land was developed and exploited with apple 
plantings. 

2. Frost damage has almost entirely destroyed the crop of 
this region in certain years. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 111 

3. Distance from market is a severe handicap. 

4. Some alkali trouble in the lower lands. 

The Twin Falls irrigated region in the extreme southern part 
of the state is a very fertile general farming country, with con- 
siderable apple plantings, some of which have been pulled out 
in recent years. Apple-growing as a specialized industry is 
being supplanted by greater diversification. 

WASHINGTON 

Yakima Valley 
Advantages. 

1. Exceptionally high annual yields of fine marketable fruit. 

2. The prevalence of good commercial and heavy bearing 
varieties. 

3. Ideal climatic conditions. 

4. Highly centralized plantings, with exceptional facilities 
for handling and storing fruit. 

5. Greater possibilities for diversification than in the Wen- 
atchee Valley. 

6. Good roads. 

7. Freedom from fungous diseases. 

8. Exceptionally high class of people engaged in the fruit 
industry, with exceptionally good social conditions. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Land values very high. 

2. Irrigation necessary. 

3. Excessive distance to market. 

4. Heavy infestation of codlin-moth. 

5. Fire-blight prevalent, particularly among Esopus (Spitz- 
enburg) trees. 

6. Many farms do not permit of any diversification. 

Wenatchee 

Advantages and disadvantages in the Wenatchee Valley are 
in the main identical with those in the Yakima Valley. Yields 
in Wenatchee are somewhat higher and the percentage of extra 



112 The Commercial Apple Industry 

fancy and fancy fruit will run somewhat higher. On the other 
hand, the limited area in the Wenatchee district will not permit 
of the diversification possible in the Yakima Valley. Fire- 
blight has not caused serious loss to the Wenatchee growers. 
In general, land values for the Wenatchee Valley are somewhat 
higher than in Yakima. Frost damage at blooming time in the 
Wenatchee Valley is almost unknown and heavy annual crops 
are fairly certain. Considerable difficulty is often experienced 
in getting the fruit to market in the fall. 

Spokane district 

Many of the same advantages and disadvantages prevail in the 
Spokane district as in the Yakima and Wenatchee. However, a 
greater proportion of unsuited land is planted to trees in 
Spokane County than in either the Yakima or the Wenatchee 
district; the yields are generally lower and more uncertain; 
frost-injury is more frequent; and fungous diseases are more 
prevalent. While nearly as many acres have been set in 
Spokane County as in Yakima County, a considerable percent- 
age of this acreage was planted on non-irrigated and less pro- 
ductive soil than is in the Yakima and Wenatchee Valleys. 

MONTANA 

Commercial plantings in Montana were largely centralized 
in the Bitter Koot Valley which suffered considerable over- 
development. Many boom projects were planted which never 
attained commercial bearing. The region is adapted to growings 
of Mcintosh apples ; the elevation is high ; frosts are not uncom-f I 
mon and the trees do not attain the size, nor do they produce 
the high annual crops that are common in many of the other 
northwest irrigated regions. 

OREGON 

Hood River 

Advantages. 

1. High-grade varieties such as Yellow Newtown and Esopus 
(Spitzenburg) predominate. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 113 

2. A high class of persons is engaged in fruit-growing; 
climate is delightful; scenery beautiful and social conditions 
good. 

3. Centralized planting. 

4. Good storage and shipping facilities. 

5. Fruit very well known and widely advertised. 

6. Prices received for output relatively high. 

Disadvantages. 

1. High land values. 

2. Little opportunity for diversification. 

3. Yields much lower than the average for the Wenatchee and 
Yakimai valleys. 

4. Apple-scab bad in certain years. 

5. Distance from market. 

Rogue River Valley 
Advantages. 

1. Climatic and social conditions ideal; beautiful scenery. 

2. Good roads and centralized planting. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Drought has greatly reduced the crop in certain years, 
although irrigation is being adopted in some sections. 

2. Land values relatively high. 

3. Adapted to pear- rather than apple-growing. 

4. Frost-injury occasional. 

5. Yields low. 

6. Distance from market. 

CALIFORNIA 

Watsonville district (Santa Cruz and Monterey counties). 

Advantages. 

1. Heavy annual yields, particularly where orchards have been 
grown in the heavy " redwood " soils. 



114 The Commercial Apple Industry 

2. Marketable quality of fruit good, but lower than in the 
Northwest. 

3. Good shipping and storing facilities, also good roads. 

4. Very centralized planting, practically all within ten miles 
of Watsonville. 

5. Cost production of apples relatively low. 

• 6. Good varieties grown, consisting almost exclusively of 
Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower. 

7. No irrigation required. 

8. Highly developed dried apple industry. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Internal browning, a physiological disease, prevalent in 
Yellow Newtown apples in certain years, detracts from storing 
qualities of this leading variety. 

2. Cooperative movement among growers working for high 
grades and better marketing facilities has not been as great as 
in many of the northwest apple-growing regions. 

3. Lack of eifort towards establishment of high grades has 
resulted in a lower price received for the fruit than for the same 
variety grown in such regions as the Hood River Valley. 

4. Rural social conditions are inferior to those found in the 
newer regions of the Northwest. 

5. Distance from eastern markets. 



Sebasto'pol section (Sonoma County) 

Advantages. 

1. Particularly adapted to the production of Gravenstein, a 
profitable variety. 

2. Relatively free from serious insect and disease injury. 

3. Local demand for output tends to offset the great distance 
from eastern markets. 

4. Highly developed dried apple industry 

5. Cooperative and community spirit apparent in most of the 
apple-growers. 



i 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 115 

Disadvantages. 

1. Yields more uncertain and somewhat lighter than in the 
Watsonville section. 

2. Distance from eastern markets. 

NEW MEXICO 

Although some commercial apple plantings are foimd in the 
Rio Grande Valley and in the Farmington district in San Juan 
County in the extreme northwestern part of the state, interest 
in New Mexico centers chiefly in the Pecos Valley where the 
heaviest apple plantings are in Chaves County in the vicinity of 
Roswell. The advantages of this county are: 

1. Acreage is young, in many cases well cared for and capable 
of producing high quality fruit in favorable seasons. 

2. Proximity to Texas markets, particularly advantageous for 
the Jonathan crop which matures earlier than in the Northwest. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Occasional frost-injury which destroys large portions of the 
crop. 

2. Lighter yields than in many of the northwest irrigated 
sections. 

3. Region difficult of access. 

The above discussion of some of the advantages and 
disadvantages common to the more important apple re- 
gions will serve in a general way to outline briefly the 
conditions to be expected in different parts of the United 
States. It is not to be considered complete and is un- 
doubtedly inapplicable to many individual cases. 

The purchase of a farm is one which requires more in- 
tensive study and consideration than such generalizations 
as have been given. The long period of years required 
to bring an orchard to full bearing signifies a long term of 
ownership. Fruit-gTowing is not entirely comparable with 



116 The Commercial Apple Industry 

general farming and as is the case with all specialized 
industries the inexperienced individual is at somewhat of 
a disadvantage in passing on the relative merits of dif- 
ferent investments. 

CHOOSING THE SITE FOR A FEUIT-FABM 

In the purchase of a fruit-farm, the prospective in- 
vestor should keep many points in mind. In the following 
discussion, the more important points will be considered 
in the purchase or selection of a site for an apple orchard. 

Raw verms planted land. 

The first problem is whether to purchase a bearing 
orchard or to buy raw land and set trees. The relative 
cheapness of undeveloped land is usually a most attrac- 
tive feature and the investor very often overlooks the fact 
that it requires from eight to ten years in irrigated sec- 
tions and from twelve to fifteen years in non-irrigated 
districts for an apple orchard to attain real commercial 
bearing. If the investor has other income or can afford 
to wait for returns, the planting of an orchard in a favor- 
able locality will usually prove profitable. 

Buying raw land in the hope of paying for its develop- 
ment and of making a living at the same time by farming 
between the rows is seldom feasible. No definite recom- 
mendations can be made to fit all cases, but as a rule 
the more profitable ventures result from the investment of 
at least a part of the available capital in bearing orchard. 
Very often adjoining raw land may be purchased which 
can be set to trees if the owner desires to extend his 
plantings. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 117 

Time to buy. 

The time to buy is usually when every one wants to 
sell, although this does not determine the relative merits 
of the different purchases. The place to buy is in a rec- 
ognized fruit region. Apple-growing is an established 
industry and one which will prove profitable over a long 
period of years, but which may not pay for a short period. 
No farming enterprise has experienced the ups and downs 
of fruit-growing. The men who made money were those 
who, through far-sightedness or good fortune, invested 
when the tide was low and who remained in the business. 
A period of good years will always follow one of poor 
years, and the fact that apple production is not highly 
sensitive to demand protects the man who invests at the 
proper time. For example, the total acreage set to apple 
trees in the decade 1910 to 1920 has been small con- 
sidering the United States as a whole. It would appear 
from this that the present apple-growers are approaching 
a period of prosperity. The cyclic tendencies of apple- 
growing are exceedingly important from the investor's 
standpoint, and much depends on the particular time 
that an investment is made. 

Syndicate projects. 

Investment in syndicate farms or large orchard pro- 
jects has been discussed elsewhere. It has been the obser- 
vation of the writers that syndicate farming of any kind, 
on any type of soil where the owner does not directly over- 
see the operations, is seldom successful. The same is 
true to a great extent for large orchard projects. Pros- 
pective investors would do well to avoid strictly all so- 



118 The Commercial Apple Industry 

called orchard projects, particularly those in which the 
tracts are to be managed by promoters and turned over 
to the purchaser after a period of years. The purchase 
of slightly run-down orchards at reasonable prices has 
often resulted in good returns, particularly when the 
trees are of good varieties. The question of renovation 
will receive separate treatment. 

Yields and varieties. 

Separate chapters are devoted to the discussion of yields 
and to the selection of varieties. Before choosing a farm, 
both of these points should be carefully considered. Re- 
liable performance records over a period of five years 
will indicate the relative productivity of different varieties 
on typical orchards of any given region. This is a far 
more reliable guide than to judge productivity by the 
apparent size and vigor of the trees. A few well-known 
commercial varieties adapted to the district are always 
to be desired. Phenomenal yields occur at times in nearly 
every region, therefore the average rather than the maxi- 
mum should be sought as a basis for calculation. The 
biennial bearing is fairly well pronounced in most regions 
and the lean years must always be considered. 

Proximity to market. 

In years of low prices the marginal regions or those 
remote from market suffer most keenly, since freight rates 
consume an inordinate proportion of the returns. This 
should not be overlooked when one contemplates buying 
an orchard at a great distance from market. Exception- 
ally high yields and excellent quality of the fruit may 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 119 

overcome in a measure the burden of heavy freight charges. 
Thus two of the most extensive apple-growing regions in 
the United States have developed in Washington, many 
hundreds of miles from the primary apple markets. The 
freight on apples from the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys 
represents a very considerable item. Granting such no- 
table exceptions, great distance from market must always 
be viewed as a decided handicap. Losses incident to car 
shortage, damage in shipment and difficulties due to long 
range business transactions are always emphasized under 
such conditions. Railroad facilities, advantages of com- 
petitive systems, and the possibility of boat shipping are 
worthy of careful consideration. 

Distance from shipping station. 

Improved roads and automobile trucks are making long 
hauls more economical and yet the distance from the or- 
chard to the shipping station is a most important factor 
in determining the price of land. The investor can af- 
ford to pay considerably more for orchard land near a 
shipping station. Investigations in 1914 on 179 farms in 
the Hood River Valley and in western Colorado indicate 
that the average cost of hauling the shooks to the farm 
and the packed fruit to the station represents approxi- 
mately one cent a bushel for each mile. The cost to-day, 
. however, is about two cents. 

; Taking this present figure in considering an orchard 
i yielding 225 bushels or 75 barrels to the acre, each addi- 
2 tional mile in the distance from the shipping station 
- would represent in these two items alone an annual cost of 
^ $4.50 an acre, or $45 an acre where the distance was ten 
miles. The cost of hauling other supplies has not been 



120 The Commercial Apple Industry 

considered, nor the social proximity to towns and cities. 
Furthermore, possible injury to fruit subjected to exces- 
sively long hauls over rough roads is not an unimportant 
feature. 

In considering long hauls to shipping stations, it is 
interesting to note that in the Piedmont section of Virginia 
not infrequently a load of Albemarle Pippins may be 
hauled thirty miles over rough mountain roads. In the 
mountains of North Carolina and Georgia one may see a 
mountain schooner laden with apples en route to a town 
some seventy-five miles distant. The latter somewhat 
commonplace occurrence is usually in complete disregard 
of any existing railroad facilities. In many of these more 
remote regions oxen furnish the motive power. In such 
regions a three- or four-day trip to town with a load of 
apples takes more the form of an outing and cost produc- 
tion is irrelevant. 

Unfortunately, long hauls and poor roads commonly 
go together. As roads improve and automobile trucks 
come into more common use, distances to stations will as- 
sume less importance. At present the prospective investor 
should consider it highly desirable to have less than a 
six-mile haul. 

Bearing age of trees. 

In considering the purchase of a very young orchard, 
one should not be misled by exaggerated accounts of early 
bearing. The age at which trees come into full bearing is 
somewhat variable, depending on the variety and the 
region. Statements regarding the large annual yields 
which may be expected from five- and six-year-old trees 
are largely untrue. Occasionally trees of this age bear 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 121 

considerable fruit, but in buying young acreage one should 
seldom figiire that an orchard will attain even fair com- 
mercial bearing before eight years for irrigated sections 
or ten to twelve years for non-irrigated districts. The age 
at which trees cease to be profitable depends somewhat on 
the region, but more on the care and variety. Most of the 
bearing orchards in western New York are forty or more 
years old and some remain profitable at fifty and even 
sixty years. These trees have received moderately good 
care. Those which have been allowed to break down, to 
become infected with disease and insect pests, and which 
have not received proper cultural treatment have long since 
passed out of profitable bearing. 

The matter of longevity is often brought up in con- 
nection with investment in irrigated orchards. The 
question is asked whether irrigated trees forced into early 
bearing will be profitable at the end of fifty years as is 
the case with some New York orchards. Early maturity 
usually indicates shorter life. If the western growers 
would maintain fertility by cover-crops and by the appli- 
cation of fertilizer in quantities commensurate with crop 
production, the drain on soil fertility would be largely 
offset. Greater care and protection given the trees 
against insects and diseases will also have an important 
influence on the life of the trees in these intensive regions. 
Since practically all the commercial orchards on irri- 
gated land have been set out in the past twenty-five years, 
there are no concrete examples as a basis for comparison. 
In speculating on the longevity of the irrigated orchards, 
. it is safe to say that the present plan of close planting 
- must be greatly modified to meet the increased size of 
i the trees. At present the average planting distance is 



122 The Commercial Apple Industry 

under thirty feet. An ultimate removal of one-third to 
one-half of the trees seems almost unavoidable. Even 
under such circumstances it hardly seems probable that 
the western irrigated orchards will remain in profitable 
bearing as long, for example, as the western New York 
orchards, the reason being not the longevity of the trees 
so much as the necessity for producing the highest grade 
fruit. The success of western irrigated orchards has been 
in the marketable superiority of its fruit. High quality 
fruit is more easily produced on young trees and it seems 
probable that the western grower will be inclined to aban- 
don older orchards and set new trees which quickly come 
into bearing under his system of orchard management. 

Diseases and insect pests. 

Several commercial apple regions have entirely passed 
out of existence on account of the prevalence of certain 
insects and diseases. A bewildering list of insects and 
diseases might be suggested to the prospective investor 
since each locality has a special number of pests which 
are more or less serious. This subject is treated more 
fully in Chapter X. 

In most regions spraying enters very materially into 
the cost of production, representing in some cases over 
12 per cent of all costs. This figure, however, is only 
an item of expense. It in no way indicates the loss in 
fruit or injury to trees which may result from the depre- 
dation of prevalent orchard pests. 

The prospective investor would do well to study the 
spraying program of the locality which he is considering 
and inform himself as to the number and character of the 
applications necessary to the production of high marketable 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 123 

quality fruit. There may be a great variation even among 
orchards in the same locality. Once pests have gained a 
foothold in an orchard, their eradication may be an ex- 
pensive process. Newly developed regions with young 
trees are as a rule singularly free from insects and disease. 
They are not guaranteed immune, however, for sooner or 
later the pests which might be expected to thrive under 
such conditions usually appear. Vigilance in controlling 
early infection will very materially reduce later loss. 

Some pests are very much more expensive to control 
than others. Apple-scab, apple-blotch, and bitter-rot are 
serious fungous diseases which the prospective purchaser 
should keep in mind, not that they should be absolutely 
avoided, for one or more appears in many very important 
regions, but that their degree of prevalence should be con- 
sidered. It makes a difference whether one or two fun- 
gicide applications will suffice for their control or whether 
five or six may be necessary. In some regions one spray 
controls codlin-moth, in others six to seven applications 
may be required. 

A careful inspection of an orchard at harvest time will 
usually reveal the loss in fruit which may be expected 
from insects and diseases, although in some instances and 
particularly with fungous diseases, the extent of the in- 
jury varies widely in different seasons. 

Climatic influences. 

Climatic influences should be carefully considered in 
relation to the purchase of a fruit-farm. The critical 
period for the apple crop is at the time the trees are in 
bloom. Frost-injury to the blossoms or damp rainy 
weather to prevent pollination are the most frequent 



124 The Commercial Apple Industry 

causes of crop failures. Official weather reports will as- 
sist the investor in determining whether damp rainy 
weather and days of low temperature are common during 
the blooming period. A commercial project embracing 
several thousand acres of orchard land has developed in 
a region where frost occurs in practically every month of 
the year and where the minimum temperature during the 
blossoming time clearly indicates that frost-injury is un- 
avoidable. An occasional dip in temperature to a point 
slightly below freezing does not necessarily signify exces- 
sive frost-injury, but recurring temperature at this criti- 
cal period of 27° F. or lower is significant of probable 
injury. 

The question of a particular site within a given region 
very often has an important bearing on susceptibility to 
frost-injury. A north or northeastern slope is usually 
preferred on account of its tendency to retard growth in the 
spring until danger has passed. Frost-injury is extremely 
erratic at times, striking here and there in an almost in- 
explicable manner. A fatal temperature on one occa- 
sion may result in very slight damage at other times. 
Other things being equal, higher elevation is preferable 
on account of better air drainage, and also soil drainage. 
The tendency of cold air to settle from high to lower land 
makes pockets and valleys without broad outlets compara- 
tively dangerous. An example is afforded in the Rogue 
River Valley near Medford, Oregon. The orchards on the 
higher land, known as the foothill orchards, are much less 
susceptible to frost-injury than those on the floor of the 
valley ; sufficiently so that the practice of smudging, still 
common in the latter orchards, has been largely discon- 
tinued on the foothills. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 125 

Damp rainy weather at blossoming time may be even a 
more serious factor than frost, since it prevents insect 
activity in pollination; furthermore, it interferes greatly 
with necessary spraying operations. Such unfavorable 
weather conditions often exist throughout the Middle 
West at blooming time. Hail injury and loss by heavy 
windstorms are much more prevalent in certain regions 
than in others. While personal investigation of the im- 
portant points is necessary, reference to official weather 
records will prove an invaluable guide. Meteorologists 
agree that climate does not change, but state that it may 
run in cycles. A study of a several year period is, there- 
fore, advisable. 

Size of farm. 

The size of farm to buy depends on whether apple-grow- 
ing is to be the sole or only one of several important enter- 
prises. A discussion of farm organizations has been given 
elsewhere. An orchard of less than fifteen acres even in 
the most intensive regions seems hardly advisable, since 
the overhead for equipment and general supervision would 
scarcely permit economical management of a smaller 
acreage; furthermore, the gross income would necessarily 
limit very large returns. The average farm in the inten- 
sive irrigated sections is scarcely over ten acres and twenty 
acres is often considered more than one man can handle. 
There is a surprising relation between the maximum yields 
and limited acreage, particularly for the farmer who 
diversifies. In other words, a small acreage well cared 
for very often gives a greater total production than a much 
larger acreage. For the intensive apple-grower, an annual 
production of at least 5,000 bushels is necessary to insure 



126 The Commercial Apple Industry 

a fair labor income. The acreage will of course vary with 
the regions. For the more general farmer, the size of 
the orchard shonld be goveraed by the acreage to which 
careful attention can be given. Ten acres or even less may 
be advisable since an orchard very often suffers from a 
pressure of other farm work. The day of poorly cared 
for commercial orchards has passed. 

• Necessary capital. 

All available capital should not be invested^ in raw land 
for planting or in non-bearing orchards. The more or 
less hazardous nature of specialized farming emphasizes 
the need for sufficient capital to tide the farmer over the 
poor years. The fruit-grower must follow a far-sighted 
policy if he is to maintain his orchard in a high state of 
productivity. Such a policy requires considerable expen- 
diture at times when there may be no returns. If the 
trees are allowed to suffer one year, the effect may be 
noticeable for many years to come. Neglected orchards 
are explained in many instances by the owners not actually 
having available capital to meet necessary expenses. It 
is not because they fail to recognize the wisdom and im- 
portance of careful spraying, pruning and the like, but 
rather because immediate needs for living expenses must 
receive first consideration. 

Specialized apple-growing can not be undertaken suc- 
cessfully on the small margin which suffices for general, 
farming. In other words, the investor who expects toj 
devote himself exclusively to apple-growing should have! 
several thousand dollars or outside income in order that he 
may safely buy and operate a farm sufficiently large to 
yield a good labor income. Nothing less than a 50 per 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 127 

cent payment should be considered as a safe margin in 
buying a full bearing orchard. For a non-bearing orchard, 
the buyer must carefully figure the outlay required to 
bring the trees to full bearing and also his living expenses 
for the meantime. Inter-crops may help to defray some 
of the running expenses, although there is a tendency to 
over-estimate income from this source. 

This leads to a discussion of the amount of money which 
the investor may expect to borrow when apple land is 
given for security. Attractive terms often may be se- 
cured at the time of purchase, particularly when the 
owner is anxious to sell or is getting a good price for his 
land. In such cases the purchaser may not require addi- 
tional capital beyond his first payment. However, if he 
is obliged to seek credit from a banker, he may be sur- 
prised to learn that apple trees are not always considered 
a permanent improvement and in such cases appraisals for 
loans are based on the value of the land for general 
crops. Such has been the decision rendered by the Fed- 
eral Loan Board in establishing a basis for loans on fruit 
lands throughout the country. Individuals may of course 
show a different attitude, considering that although the 
fruit-trees may not be considered permanent improvement, 
the land may have a greater value on account of its 
ability to produce exceptionally fine fruit. Credit will 
always retain much of the personal element and will 
vary with the prosperity of the apple industry. Further- 
more, cooperation among growers and the influences tend- 
ing to stabilize the industry may be expected to reflect 
materially on credit and current interest rates. 

For the farmer with less than several thousand dol- 
lars' capital or who does not wish to devote himself ex- 



128 The Commercial Apple Industry 

clusively to apple-growing, the selection of a more general 
farm in a recogiiized apple section where land values are 
not too high, will afford an opportunity of gradually work- 
ing into the apple industry. A small bearing orchard 
would serve as a nucleus and the returns from it could be 
used in developing additional plantings, rurthermore, 
the experience gained from caring for the older orchard 
would be profitable as a guide for the development of more 
acreage. A 100- to 200-acre farm with five to twenty 
acres of well-cared-for apple trees is a good arrangement 
and one which would have the advantage of safety, better 
credit and lower interest rates. The farmer's living ex- 
penses could be secured from the general farm land, leav- 
ing him independent of his apple crop in years of failure. 

Labor conditions. 

Labor conditions may affect greatly the advisability of 
choosing a fruit-farm in certain localities. Labor costs 
in some instances exceed 50 per cent of the total cost of 
producing apples, exclusive of interest on investments. 
Much of this labor is performed by the grower himself, 
although at hai-vest time and with such intensive opera- 
tions as spraying and thinning, the character and price 
of available labor is very important. A study of the scale 
of wages for orchard labor reveals a disparagement of 50 
per cent between different regions. Beginning with the 
low wage scale in southern states, labor rates increase 
and are at their highest in the Northwest. 

The amount of work done in a day enters into all cal 
culations and cheap labor may be the most expensive 
in the end. For example, the average picker in the North- 
west picks about twice as many apples as the average 



f 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 139 

southern laborer. The losses incident to a scarcity of 
labor at harvest time, when all the fruit may be lost if 
not picked and disposed of within proper season, need not 
be emphasized. The subject of available local labor sup- 
ply should receive careful attention by the investor. 

Social conditions. 

A factor which has entered very materially into the 
development of most commercial apple regions is the ques- 
tion of social advantages. One should carefully consider 
social conditions before investing in fruit land. Fruit- 
growing is usually looked on as a pleasurable and inter- 
esting pursuit. Furthermore, intensive fruit regions are 
necessarily thickly settled and provide social advantages 
superior to those in the average rural communities. The 
desire to live among educated persons and to have the 
advantages of excellent schools and churches and means of 
social recreation is strong. A farm in a community where 
such conditions prevail unquestionably has an added com- 
mercial value. 

Fruit-growing has always attracted city people, and in 
specialized fruit regions to-day are many who, after re- 
tirement from business, sought fruit-growing as a health- 
ful vocation and yet one which might be expected to offer 
fair returns on investment. If one seeks an isolated loca- 
tion for a fruit-farm, opportunities for converting the 
property into cash in case it is desirable to sell will be few, 
since the class of persons attracted to fruit-growing vnll 
look particularly for favorable social conditions. Social 
advantages should not completely sway one's business 
judgment, however, and should enter into consideration 
as only one of a number of important factors. 



130 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Regional developments. 

Closely allied with social conditions as a factor in influ- 
encing choice of a farm is the question of regional devel- 
opment. The advantages of a centralized industry where 
all are interested in a common end need scarcely be 
enumerated. Within this category will come all the bene- 
fits resulting from cooperation and community effort. 
Shipping and storage facilities, sales organizations and 
availability of skilled labor may be mentioned as largely 
dependent on the state of regional development. Buyers 
are attracted to the regions where fruit may be purchased 
in considerable quantities. The reputation of a region for 
shipping high class fruit has much to do with the selling 
price of the individual's crop. Western New York, Shen- 
andoah and Hood River are names which immediately 
summon to the buyer's mind a fairly well defined idea of 
the quality and variety of apples grown in each respective 
region. The dijfficulties in keeping an orchard free from 
pests and diseases are greatly increased in a community 
where neglected orchards abound. Furthermore, if the 
region has the reputation of shipping rather poor quality 
fruit, the grower will encounter an inherent prejudice 
against all fruit from that particular section. 

8oa. 

No other item should receive more careful consideration] 
in choosing a fruit-farm than the question of soil. Soil! 
requirements for the apple vary somewhat with the variety^l 
but practically all authorities agree that a deep, friable, 
loamy soil with good water drainage, describes briefly the 
soil condition to which the apple is best adapted. This 




Plate VIIT. — Upper, Eight-foot n.-i^ .. operation in tlie 
Rogue River Valley, Oregon, showing a common method of culti- 
vation. Lower, Spring-tooth harrow in use in a northwest or- 
chard. This implement is very generally used Avhere clean culti- 
vation is practiced. 



Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 131 

somewhat general description will imply that the apple 
might find a suitable soil habitat in almost all of our 
better general farming regions, and this fact is attested by 
the very wide distribution of apple plantings throughout 
the United States. 

Good drainage and soil depth are prime soil requisites 
for apple land. Natural drainage is essential since the 
apple tree does not thrive with wet feet. A subsoil depth 
of at least six or eight feet is necessary to insure proper 
root development and a sufficiently large water reservoir. 
The presence of hardpan, ledges of rock, or similar strata, 
within a few feet of the surface tends to obstruct root 
growth and the capillary movement of soil-moisture, and 
for this reason is highly undesirable, if not prohibitive. 
Deep-rooted leguminous crops such as alfalfa may remedy 
soil defects of this nature, while dynamiting tree holes be- 
fore planting can be depended on to loosen up the subsoil 
to a greater or less extent. It is much safer, however, 
to avoid all shallow soils or those with the objectionable 
subsoil strata. In one widely advertised apple region, 
dynamiting all tree holes before planting was recom- 
mended and universally practiced. All the trees grew 
well until they attained four or five years of age, at which 
time the root system began to permeate soils unaffected 
by the dynamite and the result was a greatly checked 
growth. It would, therefore, seem advisable to select a 
soil in which dynamiting is not necessary, although the 
practice may be beneficial in some instances. 

In non-irrigated sections, soil depth has an even greater 
significance, namely in the conservation of soil-moisture 
against drought. The importance of an upward movement 
of moisture by capillarity is well known. If an imperme- 



133 The Commercial Apple Industry 

able stratum obstructs this movement, the water-holding 
capacity of a particular soil may be very greatly reduced. 
Furthermore, when heavy rains occur in the spring, this 
same stratum will prevent the downward course of the 
moisture and cause the condition known as wet feet. 



CHAPTER V 

TEE FARM-MANAGEMENT PHASES OF APPLE- 
GROWING 

The problem confronting the farmer who would pro- 
duce apples is not alone to raise the fruit successfully. 
The enterprise must pay, and this depends on many con- 
siderations aside from good crops of apples and good 
markets for them. He must maintain a farm enterprise, 
or an establishment. What some of these considerations 
are, we may now discover. 

FARM ORGANIZATION IN RELATION TO THE ORCHARD 

The relation which the apple orchard bears to other 
farm enterprises differs greatly in the various states and 
regions. It varies from a subsidiary or secondary under- 
taking in many of the eastern states to a highly specialized 
and major enterprise in the Pacific Northwest regions. 

The type of orchard which is fast taking the lead in 
production of high quality commercial fruit is the spe- 
cialized planting operated by the individual farmer or his 
manager. This type is prevalent in the box-apple-produc- 
ing sections and is also found, to a large extent, in Vir- 
ginia, northwest Arkansas, parts of western New York, 
southern Pennsylvania, and many other limited localities. 
In fact, in all the well-defined commercial areas, the apple 

orchard is usually the main enterprise on the farm. 

133 



134 The Commercial Apple Industry 

There are many obvious advantages in this system. If an 
orchard is the main enterprise, it will usually be given the 
care and detailed attention necessary to insure its success 
as a separate proposition. 

However, highly specialized orcharding leaves out two 
very important points which must be considered — the 
danger of low prices and the difficulty in employing labor 
effectively. There is always the possibility of a period 
of low fruit prices, in which case the old adage " Do not 
have all your eggs in one basket," holds true. One-crop 
farming is successful from the standpoint of heavy yields 
and high quality production, but the average grower or 
farmer needs an income every year to meet his current 
expenses. If some year the frost takes his crop or prices 
are so low as to be below cost of production, he has nothing 
for his investment or year's labor, and in the case of two 
or three successive failures, such as have occurred in many 
sections, it. is only the exceptional grower who can survive. 
Such conditions actually force farmers into diversification. 
It is much better for a grower to plan originally for a 
sufficient degree of diversification to insure his living in 
case of crop failure, for if he is later forced to adjust his 
business, extra land may not be available and the future 
of his whole farm organization may be seriously impaired 
and disrupted. In many cases, orchard enterprises which 
would have been successful had they been connected with 
general farms, failed for lack of income in poor years. 

Another principal advantage in diversification is that it 
insures better distribution of labor. Help may be hired 
and profitably employed by the month or year. In the 
same way, the owner or operator may engage himself in 
productive labor on the farm throughout the entire year. 



Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 135 

It is important to recognize, however, that the diversi- 
fied fruit-farm may become so varied that the operator is 
giving practically all of his attention to other crops and 
is neglecting the orchard. 

In low price years, diversification was urged in the 
Pacific N^orthwest and elsewhere, since orchards often did 
not pay interest on the high-priced land. If the invest- 
ment i;5 already in the land, it does not follow that apples 
should not be grown when they do not pay interest on the 
investment. They may pay a better rate of interest than 
would any other crop. In sections in which trees are 
capable of high production, and land is held at such fig- 
ures as $1,500 to $2,500 an acre, diversification cannot be 
recommended beyond a limited degree sufficient to provide 
home garden truck for the family and feed for the work 
horses. In districts such as Wenatchee and Yakima, the 
prevailing labor is by the day, employed when needed. 
This form of employment obviates the necessity for the 
grower to find work for his men outside of the busy season. 

The advantages of a highly specialized and cultivated 
orchard located in a specialized district are: (1) The as- 
surance that the orchard will be given detailed care and 
attention since the operator depends directly on it for 
a living. (2) Labor is likely to be more skilled and 
more expert if employed only in fruit-growing and not 
in the cultivation of other crops. (3) Growers are forced 
to cooperate and work in harmony in order that the fruit 
may be marketed successfully. (4) Standardization is 
emphasized and encouraged, both in scientific methods of 
management and in handling and putting up the fruit for 
the market. (5) The best varieties survive and the poor 
ones are soon eliminated under keen competition. (6) 



136 The Commercial Apple Industry 

The specialist is nearly always more thorough, more ef- 
ficient, and produces a better quality of product. 

The outstanding advantages of a modified system of 
diversified farming, with the orchard still the main en-J 
terprise, are: (1) There is an assurance of more profit- 
able distribution of labor throughout the season. (2) 
Month labor can usually be employed, thus effecting con- 
siderable saving in labor rates, and insuring a constant 
supply. With a specialized orchard, unless it is very 
large, only day labor may be employed profitably. (3) 
The grower is protected against years of poor fruit prices 
by having sufficient crops and diversification to insure a 
living. (4) When live-stock is kept on farms, a part of 
the manure thus produced may be used to build up the fer- 
tility of the orchard. (5) The orchard is a long-time 
investment, and unless supported by a diversified farm 
requires much capital to bring to full bearing age and 
productivity. 

Many instances might be cited to emphasize the im- 
portance of diversification in connection with fruit-grow- 
ing. Ninety-nine mortgages are said to have been fore- ^ 
closed in a certain western fruit district in one day. 
These failures resulted from paying a high price for 
land when the purchaser had insufficient capital to wait for 
the orchard to come into profitable bearing. Low prices 
for fruit added to the number of failures. Much the same 
occurred in several districts, particularly in the Eogue 
River Valley, Oregon, Grand Valley, Colorado, the Bitter 
Root Valley, Montana, and parts of Idaho and Washington. 
These failures were in most cases due to false advertising 
stating that fortunes were to be made in the apple busi- 
ness with profitable crops when the trees were five years 



Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 137 

old. These failures do not necessarily argue against the 
regions themselves but against specialized farming with too 
little capital in sections not adapted to that type of enter- 
prise. 

The Bitter Eoot Valley, Montana, one of the finest gen- 
eral farming, grain and stock localities, is hardly adapted 
to specialized fruit-growing. Of localities in the United 
States probably best adapted to high specialization in ap- 
ples are the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, 
Hood Eiver Valley, Oregon, and Pajaro Valley, Califor- 
nia. There are sections in the East where specialized ap- 
ple-growing may be justified even to the extent of ignor- 
ing all other types of farming. However, it must be con- 
ceded that some diversification is usually advisable for 
the man with limited capital. 

A third type of farm organization is common in non- 
commercial districts, and even in the heart of such com- 
mercial regions in New York and the central west states. 
This third type is seen on the general farm where the 
orchard is of secondary importance, too large for a family 
or home orchard, yet too small and poorly cultivated to 
be classed as commercial. In practice, orchards, when 
made a secondary or an incidental enterprise, are seldom 
a financial success. When orchards of this type are elim- 
inated or put on a first-class commercial basis, the com- 
mercial industry of the Central West and East will assume 
new vigor. Production will be more standardized and will 
enable eastern growers to hold their markets against fruit 
from other regions. 

Semi-commercial orchards of this type, partly or wholly 
neglected, occur on thousands of farms in the East to-day. 
A visit to Genesee or Oswego County, ^ew York, will 



138 The Commercial Apple Industry 

{ 

reveal striking illustrations of such conditions. Genesee 
County is interested in potatoes and beans; Oswego in 
growing pears, dairying, and other kinds of farming. In 
these counties the average orchard is decidedly a side- 
line. Some of the orchards might be renovated profitably 
but this is only advisable when the owners intend to give 
their trees continual attention. It is impossible to pro- 
duce strictly commercial fruit if careless methods are em- 
ployed. A neglected orchard which is not a source of 
profit should be cut down rather than be allowed to breed 
disease and insect pests to attack good trees in the neigh- 
borhood. The semi-commercial orchard was the prevail- 
ing type in the past but it is rapidly giving way under 
competition. 

The family orchard need not be discussed here, other 
than to say that it fits in well with nearly any farm organi- 
zation. It serves an entirely different purpose and is notj 
considered from a purely profit-making standpoint. f ' 

The fourth type of farm organization to be discussed in 
relation to apple-growing is the stock company or cor- 
poration. It is often spoken of as " syndicate farming." 
Much depends on the motive behind such corporations. 
As a rule, they are merely stock-selling schemes. The 
record of such organizations in various parts of the 
country has been one of conspicuous failures, particularly 
with those which capitalized orchard land at so much an 
acre in an endeavor to sell stock or bonds to a large num- 
ber of investors. This type of promotion lends itself to I 
fraud and misrepresentation since it flourishes in times { 
of prosperity and in good fruit years when profits are 
large. Glittering prospects are held out to investors and 
appeals are made to a class of persons unfamiliar with 



Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 139 

any type of farming. Fruit-growing is essentially a 
specialized one-man enterprise. 

Following are listed some of the advantages and disad- 
vantages of so-called " syndicate farming " where the or- 
ganization is legitimate and well managed : 

Advantages: (1) Economy in the purchase of sup- 
plies; (2) possibility for more effective marketing of the 
produce; (3) improved standardization of grade and 
pack. 

Disadvantages: (1) Possibility that overhead in the 
way of salaries and other expenses will become excessive 
and disastrous in poor years. The farmer can retrench 
but fixed and overhead expenses of a syndicate are not 
easily lowered. (2) Lack of personal interest in super- 
vision and labor. Farming is not comparable with man- 
ufacturing plants in this respect. There can not be the 
organization and division of labor as in a factory. In 
an orchard, men are being constantly shifted from one 
task to another with the accompanying tendency to saun- 
ter. The hired employee is more wasteful of material and 
careless with equipment if not immediately supervised by 
the owner. (3) The possibilities of greatly increasing 
production in order to meet expensive overhead are lim- 
! ited. A frost may offset the most scientific and carefully 
. prepared program. 

: Syndicate farming sounds plausible but seldom works 
. out. If land is purchased at reasonable figures, very often 
^ profit is made on increased values. As a type of farm or- 
fganization, however, it has not been precedented with 
general success. 

!i The foregoing discussion relating to farm organiza- 
ji;tion must of necessity apply to average conditions and to 



140 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the average individual. The individual must adapt the 
organization of his plans to the economic conditions as they 
exist in his particular community. He must take advan- 
tage of the favorable, conditions in order to combat the 
unfavorable ones. It must be recognized that commercial 
orcharding is seldom successful as a side-line enterprise 
and, while it is important that there should be diversifi- 
cation in order to provide some outside income, the or- 
chard should always remain a leading if not specialized 
undertaking. 

SYSTEMS OF TENANTEY 

The problem of renting enters less- into the apple-grow- 
ing industry than into almost any other type of farming. 
It is seldom profitable to entrust the care of an orchard to 
the tenant system and this has discouraged the practice of 
renting among the owners of friiit-land generally. In 
years of crop failure, the tenant will not and can not be 
expected to devote himself to the intense care which might 
result in a profitable, crop after his lease has expired. 
Obviously a long-term lease with detailed specifications as 
to the number and character of sprays to be applied, the 
amount of pruning and cultivation to be given, and a. com- 
plete understanding as to the harvesting methods, would 
have many advantages over a short-time lease. And yet 
even with such specifications, it is almost impossible to se- 
cure the personal attention which is the secret of success. 

The basis for renting apple orchards depends largely 
on the individual orchard and also varies considerably in 
different regions. A system in which the owner has sup- 
ervision is obviously desirable from the owner's standpoint. 
A number of systems of tenantry will be discussed briefly. 



Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 141 

System I. 

Kenter furnishes': Owner furnishes: 

1. Half of all labor and material 1. Half of all labor and material 

costs. costs. 

2. Half of all equipment and 2. Half of all equipment and 

live-stock. live-stock. 

3. Dvpelling for tenant. 
Renter takes: Owner takes: 

1. One-third of packed fruit. 1. Two-thirds of packed fruit. 

Under the above system, the owner and tenant enter into 
a straight partnership to operate the fruit-farm, first set- 
ting aside one-third of the packed fruit to go to the owner 
for rental on his farm. When the tenant works alone he 
receives half wages. If one additional man is needed, his 
services are paid for by the owner to offset the labor of the 
tenant. Under this plan a desirable man with little capi- 
tal would be able to get a start, while the owner would 
be protected by having a direct voice in the operation of 
his orchard. 

System II. 

Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 

1. All labor, material, and equip- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling. 

ment with the exception of 2. All of the fertilizer and mate- 
fertilizer and material for rial for the winter spray, 

the winter spray. 3. One-half of the barrels or 

2. One-half of the barrels or boxes. 

boxes. 

Renter takes: Owner takes: 

1. Half of packed fruit and de- 1. Half of the packed fruit- 
livers the other half to the 
warehouse. 

In western New York where very often the orchard is 
only one of several enterprises on a general farm, the 
above system of tenantry is common. Under this system 
the owner exercises an appreciable, yet less far-reaching 
influence in the management of his orchard than under 



142 The Commercial Apple Industry 

plan No. I. The second plan affords the owner an at- 
tractive contract, since it gives to him a large part of the 
crop with little cash outlay. On the whole, the system 
is fairly equitable, although in years of low prices the 
tenant might be put at a relative disadvantage. The 
owner furnishes the fertilizer, since that is somewhat in 
the nature of a permanent improvement. He also fur- 
nishes material for winter spray, an expensive item which 
the tenant could ill afford to bear fn years of total crop 
failure, and yet one which the owner cannot venture to 
omit if he values the vigor of his trees. 

System III. 
Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 

1. All labor, material, and equip- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling, 
ment. 

Renter takes: Owner takes: 

1, Three- fifths of crop. 1. Two-fifths of crop, delivered 

in town and packed out in 
barrels. 

System IV. 

Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 

1. Equipment, all labor and ma- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling, 

terial costs up to harvest. 

2. Labor and material costs for 2. One-half of picking labor. 

picking, packing and han- 
dling one-half of the fruit. 

Renter takes: Owner takes: 

1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 
and handles it according to and handles it according to 

his own judgment. his own judgment. 

Under the above system, the owner is allowed the privi- 
lege of grading and packing out his own fruit while the 
same privilege is reserved for the tenant. A modified 



Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 143 

form of the above is seen when the owner furnishes half 
of the picking labor and half of all labor and material 
costs incident to the harvesting of the fruit, taking one- 
half of the crop, but allowing the tenant entire supervision 
of the orchard operations. 

A study of an equitable basis for tenantry has revealed 
that when the tenant is furnishing all the labor he is en- 
titled to a larger proportion of the crop in years of exceed- 
ingly heavy production. Otherwise the owner reaps prac- 
tically all the benefits of a large crop. Unfortunately, 
low prices prevail in heavy crop years. With straight 
share rentals in such years, the owner obtains a large 
amount of fruit which even at low prices makes good re- 
turns. If the tenant, however, receives low prices for his 
fruit, he has insufficient margin to cover the heavy ex- 
penditure in harvesting the landlord's portion of the 
crop. Some division of the labor and handling costs at 
harvest time would seem more equitable. 

Occasionally a long-term cash lease at a reasonable figure 
can be secured on somewhat run-down orchards in a fav- 
orable locality. Frequently such an orchard is making 
little or no returns and a cash offer will be attractive to the 
owner. For the experienced man with little capital, a 
long-term lease with a view to building up and increasing 
the yields from such an orchard sometimes proves a profit- 
able venture, particularly when the owner considers that 
his orchard will be improved and for such a reason grants 
an otherwise low cash rental figure. Some special induce- 
ment must be offered to a tenant, otherwise he can not 
afford to devote his best energy towards building up a suc- 
cessful orchard from which another will reap the ultimate 
reward. 



CHAPTER VI 
ESTABLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD 

Thorough preparation of the land before planting is 
exceedingly important if the apple orchard is to be well 
established. Very often orchards are planted on pasture, 
timbered, or sage-brush land where the soil has been un- 
tilled. Timbered land, once cleared of stumps and brush, 
usually lends itself well to early planting because of an 
abundance of humus available for young trees. It is best 
in nearly all cases, however, to anticipate planting by a 
year or two in order thoroughly to subjugate the soil by 
the growing of tilled or cover-crops. Soils which have 
been depleted in fertility or which are low in humus-con- 
tent may be built up by the growing of such legumes as 
alfalfa or clover. In the case of arid or sage-brush lands 
reclaimed for irrigation, the soil is usually low in humus- 
content. In such instances the growing of alfalfa for one 
or two seasons will usually repay the orchardist for delay 
in planting. 

Deep plowing should precede planting in every case, 
for once the trees are established, deep cultivation is likely 
to injure the rooting system. Dynamiting is sometimes 
recommended when a hardpan or thin stratum of rock 
occurs near the surface, but ordinarily this practice is not 
to be advised and such soils should be avoided. When 
spring planting is to be employed, fall plowing is recom- 

144 



Establishing the Apple Orchard 145 

mended, since it exposes the soil to the ameliorating in- 
fluences of the winter and causes the destruction of many 
insect pests and rodents. In the case of sod land, it is best 
to plow and cross-plow in the fall, leaving the land rough 
throughout the winter, working it up thoroughly with the 
disc and harrow the following spring. When cover-crops 
are grown to improve the soil, plowing is usually deferred 
from fall until spring. 

Land which is to be irrigated should be leveled and care- 
fully laid off with irrigation ditches prior to planting, 
since it is not easy to effect changes in the contour once 
trees have been set. 

NURSEEY STOCK 

Apple trees are propagated either by grafting or bud- 
ding, the former being the most common method, l^o 
attempt will be made to discuss methods of propagation 
since it is usually advisable for the orchardist to buy his 
trees from a reliable nurseryman rather than to propa- 
gate them himself. 

The purchase of nursery stock should receive most 
careful attention. The grower should consult with state 
or government horticulturists or with successful growers 
in order to establish the integrity of the firm with which 
he proposes to deal. The orchardist should buy only the 
best trees, dealing directly with the nursery and avoiding 
tree peddlers. The nurchase of inferior stock is always 
poor economy. 

All horticulturists do not agree as to the proper age of 
trees to plant. However, the one-year whip is usually 
most desirable, since it can be trained properly and has 



146 The Commercial Apple Industry 

more fibrous roots. Trees older than one year are often 
poorly shaped. 

It is advisable to purchase nursery stock well in advance 
of planting in order than one may secure stock of desired 
variety and quality. If trees are to be planted in the 
spring, they may be purchased safely in the preceding fall 
and " heeled-in " by the grower himself. On arrival, all 
trees should be carefully inspected for disease, attention 
being given particularly to infestation of scale or woolly 
aphis, or the presence of crown-gall. If possible, a com- 
petent inspector should pass on the stock to see that the 
trees are healthy,- vigorous, and of smooth bright bark. 
One-year old whips should be about 5 feet tall and ^ inch 
in diameter at the base. 

The subject of varieties is thoroughly discussed in 
Chapter XIX. Selection should be confined to three or 
four standard varieties for commercial planting. 

Immediately on arrival, all trees should either be 
planted or" " heeled-in." If trees arrive in freezing 
weather, they should be left in the original package and 
kept in a cool damp place until thawed out. Ordinarily, 
however, the grower should avoid leaving the trees in the 
original package lest they become seriously injured or 
entirely worthless from drying out. 

When planting is not to be done immediately, the 
bundles should be cut open and the trees unpacked and 
" heeled-in " singly. Too much emphasis can not be 
placed on the importance of " heeling-in " the trees on 
their arrival. In this operation, a trench is dug about 18 
inches deep and the trees placed in the trench with their 
tops slanting to the south at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
Moist soil should be carefully worked in about the roots of 



Establishing the Apple Orchard 147 

the trees so that they will not dry out. Care must be taken 
in order that the varieties will not become mixed. 

SYSTEMS OF PLANTING (fIG. 2 ) 

The following are the three best-known planting 
systems : 

(1) In the square planting system, the rows run at right 
angles and the trees are the same distance apart each 
way. This method facilitates cultivation, spraying, har- 
vesting, and other cultural operations. 

(2) In the hexagonal system the trees are equally dis- 
tant in every direction, being set in equilateral triangles 
or alternate rows, so that the space between each group of 
four trees is diamond-shaped. The hexagonal system does 
not lend itself well to the use of fillers, but since all the 
trees are equidistant there is an equal distribution of air, 
light and soil. This system provides for about 15 per 
cent more trees to the acre than could be planted on the 
square plan at the same planting distance. 

(3) With the quincunx system, the trees are set in 
squares with a tree in the center. This latter plan is 
adapted to plantings where fillers are used, it being possi- 
ble to remove the tree in the center of the square without 
disturbing the permanent planting system. 

The symmetry of the orchard depends to a large ex- 
tent on the evenness of the rows. "Wlien a large orchard 
is being set, it may pay to employ the use of a transit so 
that the trees may be spaced with utmost accuracy. 
This is not absolutely necessary, however, since more sim- 
ple methods may be practiced, particularly with more 
limited plantings. Whatever system of planting is fol- 
lowed in laying out the orchard, the first trees should be 



148 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



PECTANGULfIR 



Hex.AaONHU 



•w 



-r 
/ \ 



/ \ / V / \ / \ / \ 

^ / \ / \ / \ ' \ / 

\ , \/ V N/ V_ 

/ \ / \ ' \ / \ / ^. 

k. — « ^ Ak- — • i 

\ ' \ / ^ ' \ / ^ ' 

' ^ / \ / \ / \ / \ 



\ / \ / \ / 



OUINCUNX 



^-^^r— ^t 



^ — i^ — ^^ — i^^ 






/^ 



(—:'' 



X 



X 



\ > yf^ -^ ^ ^ 

X' 



s 






V 



Fig. 2. — The rectangular or square, the hexagonal or equilateral 
triangle and the quincunx systems of planting. Planting-board of 
type often used in setting illustrated at bottom of figure. 

from 20 to 25 feet from the fence in order to afford room 
for turning a team or tractor engaged in orchard operations. 

Square system. 

By laying off the base line parallel with the fence on 
one side of the field and by placing stakes at regular in- 



Estahlisliing the Apple Orchard 149 

tervals in this line, it will be possible to establish the 
position of the trees in this first row. By establishing 
another line at right angles to the first, it will be possible 
with the use of stakes to sight across and establish par- 
allel lines which will serve as guides in lining up the rows. 
It is usually advisable to set a stake at the place for eacb 
tree. Then after sighting across from the base lines, 
it will be possible to determine the stakes which are not in 
alignment. Figure 2 shows the three important systems 
for laying out commercial plantings. Table VIII indi- 
cates the number of trees to the acre under different plant- 
ing distances and systems. 

Table VIII. — Number of Trees to the Acre 



Distance Apart 


Square 


Hexagonal 


Quincu 


16x16 


170 


196 


303 


18x18 


134 


154 


239 


20x20 


108 


124 


129 


22x22 


90 


104 


148 


24x24 


76 


87 


132 


25x25 


70 


80 


125 


26x26 


64 


74 


114 


28 x 28 


56 


64 


100 


30x30 


48 


55 


85 


32x32 


43 


49 


76 


33x33 


40 


46 


71 


35x35 


35 


41 


65 


36x36 


34 


39 


60 


40x40 


27 


32 


48 


45x45 


22 


25 


39 



Hexagonal system,. 

The use of a wire triangle is recommended for planting 
trees under the hexagonal system. Each side of the tri- 
angle should represent the distance between the permanent 
trees. The wires should be connected at each angle by 
means of rings. The triangle is then carried about by 



150 The Commercial Apple Industry 

three workmen, and if kept tightly drawn and held level, 
stakes marking the exact site of the trees may be located 
after the first base line along the side of the orchard has 
been laid off. 

Attention is called to the fact that in laying off planting 
distances on uneven land, care must be taken in keeping 
the measuring line level so that the distance between trees 
does not include the slope of the land. 

Quincunx system. 

The quincunx being a modification of the square system, 
may be laid off in the same manner as the latter. The 
location of the center tree may be estaWished by placing 
an additional stake midway between the tree stakes in the 
base line. 

PLANTING DISTANCES 

Close planting is a common tendency in laying out 
commercial apple orchards. While planting distances 
vary with the variety and with the region, it is seldom 
advisable to space permanent trees closer than 30 feet 
apart. Spreading trees such as Baldwin, Ehode Island 
Greening and Arkansas (Black Twig) should be planted 
at greater distances, not closer than 40 feet apart when 
growth is vigorous. A great mistake was made in plant- 
ing New York orchards closer than 40 feet. Varieties 
such as Wagener, Yellow Transparent, and Twenty Ounce, 
which have an upright habit of growth, do not require 
extreme distances and may be planted as close as 30 feet. 
In regions in which trees attain smaller size, the planting 
distances of these upright growing trees may be reduced 



A 



Establishing the Apple Orchard 151 

to 28 or even 25 feet. Orchardists should bear in mind, 
however, that trees set too close together very seriously 
handicap orchard operations, for branches interlock when 
full growth is attained. 

TIME TO PLANT 

The time of planting depends entirely on local condi- 
tions. Fall plantings may offer one distinct advantage if 
the trees become established before winter sets in and are 
able to start growth early in the spring. However, if the 
winter is cold, dry, or otherwise unfavorable, the fall 
planted trees may be seriously checked in their early 
growth. For this reason spring planting is preferred in 
most northern regions. In the southern latitudes, late fall 
or early winter is usually considered safe. 

If there is any question, it is safer to plant in the 
spring as soon as the soil can be placed in good tilth. 
Trees should be kept dormant until setting. 

SETTING TREES 

The use of the planting-board is important in securing 
perfect alignment. (See Fig. 2-.) Such a board is usu- 
ally 4 or 5 feet long, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick with 
a notch in one side at the center and a hole in each end. 
m using this device, the notch in the center is first placed 
tightly against the stake which stands where the tree is 
to be set. Other stakes are then driven through the holes 
in either end and the board is later removed to permit the 
digging of the hole. After the hole is dug, the board may 
be placed over the pins and the tree set so as to occupy the 
same position in the notch as did the original stake. 



152 IVie Commercial Apple Industry 

A four-man crew is efficient when a large number of 
trees are to be planted. Holes should be dug large enough 
to accommodate the root system without crowding or 
bunching the roots, also sufficiently deep to permit the 
planting of the tree two or three inches deeper than it 
stood in the nursery row. It is important that all broken, 
bruised or interlacing roots be cut away at the time of 
transplanting. Long roots should be cut back to about 
six inches. After the tree has been located with the aid of 
the planting-board, rich soil from the surface should be 
worked tightly under and among the roots with the fingers. 
The hole should then be filled about half full of dirt and 
tramped. Hard lumpy soil should be avoided since it 
dries out easily. The remainder of the hole should be 
filled and the earth carefully tamped about the roots. A 
few shovelfuls of loose dirt or a few forkfuls of loose 
manure thrown about the tree is a last precaution to pre- 
vent the loss of moisture and completes the operation of 
planting. When strong winds prevail as in many local- 
ities, it is important that the tree be leaned strongly 
against prevailing winds. When large numbers of trees 
are being planted, the roots should be covered with saw- 
dust or placed in a tub of loamy soil mixed with water. 
This precaution will prevent drying out of the trees when 
they are being distributed for planting. 

HEADING TREES 

In transplanting, a large part of the root system of the 
young tree is removed. In order to preserve the proper 
balance between the top and the roots, it is necessary that 
the former be cut back as severely or even more so than the 




[ Pi.ATE IX. — Upper, Weeder in use in a Hood River orchard. 
Lower, Type of float commonly used at Hood River after cultiva- 
>' tion. 



Establishing the Apple Orchard 153 

root system. Not only does this maintain the proper bal- 
ance between root and top, but it permits the proper head- 
ing of the tree. While no definite height is given for 
heading, it is suggested that one-year apple whips should 
be cut to about 24 inches at time of planting in order that 
the proper shaped trees may be developed. Emphasis is 
laid on the advantages of low-headed trees. Such opera- 
tions as spraying, pruning, thinning and harvesting can 
be done more economically and effectively when the bear- 
ing surface is close to the ground. 

USE OF FILLEES AND INTER-CKOPS 

The practice of planting " fillers " to utilize the land 
between young trees is common and may have the advant- 
age of bringing early returns before the permanent orchard 
attains bearing. Peaches or early bearing varieties of 
apples such as the Yellow Transparent are used most com- 
monly as fillers. The grower usually makes the mistake 
of allowing these temporary trees to remain too long, with 
the result that the permanent trees are crowded and their 
productivity jeopardized. If the orchard is favorably sit- 
uated for the production of peaches, the grower will find 
that this fruit lends itself well to a system of fillers. Va- 
rieties of apples such as Mcintosh, Wealthy, Wagener, 
Duchess and Yellow Transparent, which come into bear- 
ing early, are adapted for use as fillers. 

The growing of small-fruits between the rows, such as 
strawberries, blackberries and raspberries, has been very 
profitable in some regions. Notable among such instances 
is the Hood Eiver Valley, well known for its strawberries 
produced as an inter-crop in the young apple orchards. 



154 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Cultivated crops such as potatoes and tomatoes may prove 
profitable as inter-crops, although care must be taken not 
to encroach on the soil and water requirements of the young 
trees. 



CHAPTER VII 
CULTIVATION OF THE ORCHARD 

In this chapter will he discussed methods of tillage and 
systems involving the use of cover-crops and sod-mulch, and 
the use of the tractor in orchard cultivation. 

No hard and fast rules can be laid down for soil man- 
agement since conditions vary greatly in different regions, 
but a number of principles should be followed everywhere. 
Usually the correct system is worked out eventually by the 
most successful grower in any community and it is by 
following in a general way methods which by demonstra- 
tion have established their efficiency that one may hope 
for the best results. 

In reacting from the neglectful practices of soil man- 
agement which prevailed in many eastern orchards, the 
western apple-growers for a period of years adopted a pro- 
gram of intensive and absolutely clean cultivation. (See 
Plate VII.) Conservation of moisture and stimulation of 
tree growth were the two principal reasons for such a pro- 
gram. Until 1915 absolutely clean cultivation was the 
practice in all of the leading apple regions of the Pacific 
Northwest. As the trees grew older, greater demands 
were made on the soil and it became apparent that this 
system of soil management led to a depletion of fertility 
and failed particularly in maintaining the necessary hu- 
mus-content. A rapid change occurred in the system of 
soil management and at present a cover- or shade-crop sys- 

155 



156 The Commercial Apple Industry 

tern has come into common use. Alfalfa seems best suited 
to the irrigated orchard land of the West and although it 
is spoken of there as a cover-crop, it is more properly either 
an inter-crop or a sod-mulch, for it remains in the orchard 
for several years and as a rule one or two cuttings are taken 
off in the form of hay. 

CLEAN CULTIVATION 

Clean cultivation has many evils which are not at once 
apparent. The most striking example occurred in the 
Hood River Valley, Oregon, where clean cultivation was 
practiced until about 1915 when the bearing orchards 
began to show marked signs of lack of vigor, evidenced by 
pale foliage, light yields of small fruit and poor annual 
growth. The Hood River orchards made a marked recov- 
ery in the next two or three years, following wider use of 
irrigation in growing leguminous cover-crops and on appli- 
cation of nitrate of soda. 

Except in special cases, continued clean cultivation can 
have only disastrous results. Where there is sufficient 
nitrogen and humus in the soil, there is no particular 
objection to clean cultivation for a limited period of years. 
Clean culture for a time unquestionably stimulates tree 
growth and increases yields. It has been observed that 
this practice is followed continuously in some of the best 
paying and finest apple orchards in the United States. 
Invariably, however, in such instances the original soil was 
unusually rich in humus and other plant-food and this 
reservoir has not been exhausted. It is better to maintain 
fertility, for once depleted its restoration is difficult. 

In starting young orchards, clean cultivation is not 
harmful for the first three or four years. In fact, it may 



Cultivation of the Orchard 157 

be very beneficial and is probably advisable when inter- 
crops are not particularly profitable. In certain seasons 
and in certain regions, lack of sufficient moisture is a crit- 
ical factor. Obviously the only method to follow in dry 
years is to practice intensive cultivation in order to pre- 
serve the soil-mulch so necessary for moisture conserva- 
tion. Ordinarily regions in which such an extreme short- 
age of moisture might take place would hardly be recom- 
mended for apples, although dry years are likely to occur 
in almost every section. 

When clean cultivation is practiced, humus should be 
supplied. Barnyard manure, when available, is the most 
suitable form, since it not only supplies humus but nitrogen 
and other elements of plant-food as well. Straw, shredded 
cow fodder, or stubble clippings when scattered under trees 
and incorporated in the soil, increase the humus-content. 
Applications of the latter materials at the rate of 50 to 75 
pounds each for trees under six years and from 75 to 150 
pounds each for trees six to ten years will prove beneficial. 

SOD- OR GRASS-MULCH 

Many apple orchards of the United States are allowed 
to remain in sod- or grass-mulch. The sod-mulch system 
offers the line of least resistance and represents the least 
expenditure of time and effort. It is pai'ticularly common 
throughout eastern and middle west orchards. Its possi- 
ble advantages are: (1) increased color of fruit; (2) 
reduced cost an acre ; ( 3 ) prevents hilly or mountainous 
soils from washing. 

The sod-mulch is probably the only practicable system 
for certain hilly districts in New England and throughout 
the Piedmont region in Virginia where the orchard land 



158 The Commercial Apple Industry 

is too steep to cultivate and where clean cultivation would 
result in bad washing. The natural vegetative growth 
supplemented bj fertilization in some instances and occa- 
sional cultivation about trees serves to maintain the fertil- 
ity of these soils. 

The disadvantages of the sod-mulch system are: (1) 
reduces yields; (2) reduces vitality and tree growth; (3) 
provides harbor for mice, insects and diseases; (4) has 
tendency to encourage general neglect; (5) reduces soil 
aeration; (6) sheds rain. 

In all cost-production studies, the question of yield 
appears as the critical factor. It is not the acre cost of 
operation, but the barrel or box cost of production that 
determines profit. If the yield can be increased, the cost 
of production is usually materially decreased. Records 
taken by the writers show that in- general yields are re- 
duced under the sod-mulch system. 

While the sod-mulch may be depended on to return 
humus to the soil and commercial fertilizer may maintain 
fertility, the lack of cultivation will undoubtedly be felt, 
and as a general rule trees in sod-mulch have less vitality 
and make less growth than those which are cultivated. 

Some growers, notably one very successful grower in 
western New York and many in southern Ohio, use the 
sod-mulch system very profitably. It can not be con- 
demned under all conditions but it unquestionably tends 
to encourage general neglect of the orchard. The grower 
with the sod orchard is not brought into such intimate 
touch with his trees as the one who practices more intensive 
culture and who is working about among his trees every 
few days. Furthermore, the sod furnishes a harbor for 
mice, insects and diseases. 



Cultivation of the Orchard 159 

CLEAN CULTIVATION WITH COVER-CROPS 

The best general method o£ soil management for all 
commercial apple regions, with two possible exceptions, is 
clean cultivation with the use of a cover-crop. The two 
general exceptions are: (1) western irrigated orchards 
which at present are committed largely to the system of 
leguminous inter-crop or perennial cover-crop; and (2) 
orchards which are too hilly to permit of cultivation, such 
as have been described for parts of New England and 
Virginia. 

The term " cover-crop " is correctly applied to a crop 
sown in the late summer months, usually in July or 
August, which is plowed under the following spring. By 
cultivating the orchard until late summer, the grower is 
using the best method for conserving the moisture and is 
insuring other benefits to be derived from cultivation. 

In sowing the cover-crop in the summer or fall, the 
orchardist can check the growth of his trees and insure the 
hardening of their growth before winter without robbing 
them of the plant-food necessary to mature tlie crop. The 
cover-crop acts as a protection during the winter months 
and when plowed under in the spring increases \he supply 
of humus, improves the physical condition of the soil and 
makes more plant-food available. This system of soil 
management is most common in western New York where 
mammoth red clover and vetch are the best suited 
leguminous cover-crops and rye, buckwheat, oats, barley, 
rape and cow-horn turnips are the widely grown non- 
leguminous cover-crops. Leguminous cover-crops are 
usually more desirable since they not only add humus, but 
make more nitrogen available. 



160 The Commercial Apple Industry 

By combining cover-crops with cultivation, it is possible 
to secure nearly all of the benefits to be derived from the 
varying methods of soil treatment. Such a system is 
designed to preserve and promote permanent soil fertility. 

COVEK-CEOPS 

There are two important kinds of cover-crops: (1) 
leguminous, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, vetch and beans ; 
(2) non-leguminous, such as rye, rape and buckwheat. 
These crops may be further subdivided into those which 
live over the winter, such as clover, vetch and rye, and 
those like rape, buckwheat and peas which die down in the 
fall. Leguminous crops are recommended at least once in 
three years or more often, especially when trees are not 
making sufficient annual growth and when foliage is pale. 
As a general rule, they are preferable to non-leguminous 
crops since they add nitrogen to the soil. Cover-crops 
which live . through the winter protect the trees against 
winter-injury in the absence of snow and also prevent 
the washing and leaching of soluble plant-foods. 

Alfalfa is by far the most popular cover-crop in western 
irrigated orchards where it has largely supplanted the 
clean culture system. Vetch, clover and other cover-crops 
are also recommended. Although alfalfa is known in the 
West as a cover-crop, a distinction should be made between 
the eastern cover-crop planted in the fall and plowed under 
the following spring and the western cover-crop which is 
left in the orchard for several years. In reajity the west- 
ern cover-crop is an inter-crop, but since its purpose is 
primarily to benefit the orchard rather than to provide 
immediate returns to the grower, the word cover-crop has 
been retained. 



Cultivation of the Orchard 161 

The benefits of a leguminous cover-crop as grown in the 
West (alfalfa most common) are as follows: (1) supplies 
nitrogen and humus — both limiting factors in the western 
desert soils which have been reclaimed by irrigation ; (2) is 
thought to have beneficial effect in controlling apple-rosette, 
a physiological disease somewhat common in the West ; ( 3 ) 
provides a source of income — usually two cuttings of hay 
are removed, the third being left. Whether this is the 
best practice remains to be proved. Some investigators 
maintain that the taking of two cuttings of hay removes 
too much nitrogen. Much depends on what disposition is 
made of the hay : whether it is fed and returned in form 
of manure or sold off the farm; (4) improves texture of 
soil; (5) promotes aeration of subsoil after plants are 
killed and the roots decay; (6) permits of deeper penetra- 
tion of the roots. 

Disadvantages of leguminous shade-crop system may be 
summed up as follows: (1) shade-crops may rob trees of 
water and other plant-food ; alfalfa is particularly a close 
feeder, likely to crowd young trees ; it should be grown 
only where water supply is ample and strip cultivation is 
practiced among young trees; (2) alfalfa if once started 
is difficult to eradicate; (3) in some regions, particularly 
in the East, alfalfa is costly and difficult to start. 

With alfalfa as a perennial cover-crop, soil management 
includes a thorough discing in the spring. Time of seed- 
ing varies with the region and should follow established 
precedent. In passing from clean cultivation to shade 
crops, the western apple-grower may swerve to the other 
extreme and allow alfalfa or other crops to remain in his 
orchard too long. Clover lends itself to short rotations 
better than alfalfa, although it is less profitable. In any 



163 The Commercial Apple Industry 

event, shade-crops should seldom be allowed to remain 
more than four or five years. Cultivation for a year or 
two will preserve a judicial balance. 

The quantity of seed to the acre for cover-crops may vary 
somewhat with the region. However, the following table 
will serve as a rough guide : 

Table IX. — Quantity of Seed to the Acre 

Mammoth clover 10 pounds 

Common red clover 10 

Alsike clover 8 

Crimson clover 15 

Alfalfa 20 

Cowpeas 75 

Soybeans 75 

Hairy or vrinter vetch 50 

Summer vetch 60 

Canada peas 90 

Rye 75 

Buckwheat 60 

Rape 6 

Turnips 1 pound 

VALUE OF CULTIVATION AJSTD METHODS 

The philosophy of tillage and its absolute necessity in 
maintaining soil fertility need as much emphasis in apple- 
growing as in any other phase of agriculture. Above all, 
tillage is the principal determining factor in moisture con- 
servation. It increases the availability of plant-food by 
promoting the decomposition of organic matter ; it fines the 
soil and thereby increases the feeding surface for the roots 
and it promotes many favorable chemical and biological 
activities. 

Hard, lumpy, untilled soil will no more produce profit- 
able apple trees than any other crop. The bad effects of 
continued clean cultivation have been emphasized, but the 



Cultivation of the Orchard 163 

entire omission of tillage will be even more injurious than 
too much cultivation. 

Plowing every year or every other year is highly recom- 
mended for all orchards except those in shade-crops or on 
land unsuited for cultivation. The operation may be per- 
formed either in the fall or spring. The only danger in 
plowing is too great disturbance of root systems. For that 
reason regular plowing is more advisable than plowing at 
intervals of several years. Most commercial apple-growers 
plow from 4 to 6 inches deep. The general use of cover- 
crops makes spring plowing more common. Very often 
discing is the first operation in the spring since it may be 
done earlier than plowing. When clover or alfalfa is 
grown in the orchard, plowing may not be advisable of tener 
than every three years. 

Early cultivation is essential to moisture conservation 
and the soil should be worked as early in the spring as 
possible. When water is not a critical factor and when a 
cover-crop is grown, it is sometimes permissible to allow 
the cover-crop to get a good start in the spring before turn- 
ing it under. In plowing, the orchardist should plow 
toward the tree one year and away from the tree in the 
next in order to prevent the tendency toward ridging. As 
stated above, when perennial shade-crops such as alfalfa 
are being grown, plowing of course is not practiced. A 
thorough discing in the spring is recommended, however, 
for shade-crops and may take the place of plowing. (See 
Plate VIII.) 

After the first discing or plowing, frequent cultivation, 
preferably every two weeks, is the program followed by 
most successful apple-growers. By preserving a soil- 
mulch until August, the critical drought period usually 



164 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Q 

< 
W 
o 
a 

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Cultivation of the Orchard 165 

can be passed successfully. By that time it is difficult to 
cultivate among laden trees. Furthermore, cover-crops 
are usually sown in July and August and as early as June. 
The various soil management systems are summed up 
in Table X. 

IMPLEMENTS ( PLATE IX ) 

Various tools are employed by the successful apple- 
grower. For plowing, a twelve- to fourteen-inch plow, 
either single or with two or more bottoms, is a necessary 
part of orchard equipment. For stony land the spade disc 
is popular, although the cutaway is more generally used. 
For late cultivation, various tools are employed. Spike 
and spring-tooth harrows, drags and weeders of various 
description are commonly utilized. In the West a light 
spring-tooth harrow is very popular. The latter is an 
excellent tool, stirs the soil well, and has many advantages. 
Clod-mashers, drags or harrows may be equally effective 
in pulverizing the soil. Special care and precaution 
should be taken in working among trees to prevent injury. 

THE TKACTOR IN THE APPLE ORCHAKD 

While the tractor has grown rapidly in popularity, use- 
fulness and value for general farm operations during the 
past decade, there is probably no other type of farming 
for which it has proved more universally satisfactory and 
profitable than for commercial fruit-growing when the 
acreage is of sufficient size to warrant the investment. 
There seems no question but that the tractor will event- 
ually be used in nearly all of the large orchards and in 
fact is being used in a great many to-day. In comparing 
the efficiency of the tractor with horse labor, the tractor 
has the following advantages: 



166 The Commercial Apple Industry 

1. The tractor does work more rapidly. Cultivation, 
which comprises the major part of the work for which 
draft power is required on the fruit-farm, is ordinarily 
restricted to a comparatively limited period. As a tractor 
works much more rapidly than a team, the orchard may be 
thoroughly disced and harrowed in a comparatively short 
time. The number of acres which a tractor will cover in 
a day will vary greatly. It depends entirely on the make 
and horse-power of the tractor, the skill with which it is 
handled, the amount of turning necessary and the time lost 
due to breakdowns, and the like. However, on the aver- 
age, a tractor will till many times the area covered by a 
team and do it much more thoroughly. 

The tractor ordinarily does not move any faster than a 
team, but it draws a much wider disc, harrow or other 
tool. A good two-plow tractor will pull an eight-foot 
double disc at the same rate that a four-horse team will 
draw an eight-foot single disc. The tractor is, therefore, 
doing the work of six to eight horses. 

2. A maximum of work may be done at rush seasons by 
use of the tractor. Since certain work must be done within 
limited periods, there is frequently more or less difficulty 
in obtaining the necessary help just when it is needed. 
It is, therefore, desirable that the power plant be large 
enough to permit one man to do a large amount of work 
in a day and thereby reduce to a minimum the extra help 
required. It is difficult to use more than a two-horse team 
in an orchard, as a larger team usually proves unhandy 
and unsatisfactory among the trees. In the case of large 
acreages where no tractor is employed, it is often necessary 
to keep a large number of men and horses at considerable 






Cultivation of the Orchard 167 

expense, in order to permit rapid work in the proper 
season. 

3. The tractor has only overhead expense when not 
in use, while it is necessary to keep and feed horses whether 
or not they are working. Interest and depreciation on the 
tractor, however, are no small items of expense. If the 
whole farm is in orchard, a larger percentage of the draft 
work can be done with the tractor than is usually the case 
on general farms. When the orchardist buys a tractor, he 
can dispose of a larger percentage of his horses than can 
the general farmer. 

4. The tractor permits thorough work. Since the 
tractor has so much more motive power than a team, it 
can draw tools which will cultivate much more deeply and 
thoroughly. When thorough and deep discing is desired, 
tractors are particularly advantageous. Many tractors 
draw both a disc and harrow at the same time, the disc 
following the harrow or vice versa as the grower may 
desire. This is not feasible when a two-horse team, is used. 

5. Less injury is caused the trees with tractor. There 
is a greater danger of injuring the fruit on the lower limbs 
in cultivating with teams than with tractors. Fruit- 
growers who have used the tractor emphasize that it may 
not only be more economical in cultivation, but that it is 
superior to horses for work in large orchards. They claim 
that the tractor does less damage to the branches and trees 
than horses, partly because fewer trips are required to 
accomplish a given amount of work and partly because the 
greater width of the implement pulled by the tractor makes 
it unnecessary to travel as close to the trees as when horses 
are used. 



168 The Commercial Apple Industry 

6. A tractor may work close to trees. The tractor can 
easily cultivate close to the tree row. In many cases prac- 
tically all the work of cultivation can be done when the 
tractor travels in the center of the row. It is sometimes 
necessary that the motive power, whether horses or tractor, 
must pass under the limbs and close to the trees, but even 
in such cases the tractor does considerably less damage 
than horses. A suitable type of tractor is not as high as 
horses and furthermore may be equipped with guards to 
raise the limbs gently while the machine passes underneath 
without breaking the limbs or jarring oif the fruit. 

7. The tractor may be useful in doing other work than 
cultivating. The usefulness of the tractor in many 
orchards is not confined to cultivation. Growers who have 
used tractors state that they save much time and expense 
in pulling out trees which need to be removed because of 
disease or crowding. A medium-sized tractor will pull 
most trees without difficulty if a 'chain is fastened well up 
on the stump or on some of the heavy limbs and then 
hitched to the tractor. Some growers use the tractor in 
the orchard for hauling manure, lime, spray materials, and 
the like, and in rare cases the spray outfit. While the full 
possibilities of the tractor have not been realized, it must 
be remembered that if there are idle horses on the farm it 
will not usually be profitable to employ the tractor for 
work which two or three horses could do. 

Tractors have proved popular and highly profitable with 
most orchardists who have used them. It is well to state, 
however, that there are some disadvantages which many 
growers have found and which should be given fully as 
much weight as the advantages. 

1. The tractor is feasible only on a large farm. An 



Cultivation of the Orchard 169 

ordinary tractor at present is not adapted for use on the 
small farm, particularly a small intensive fruit-farm. It 
is not necessary that the orchard be large, but if the fruit 
acreage is small a tractor will not be profitable unless con- 
siderable general farm land is being operated in conjunc- 
tion with the orchard. Orchards of less than 30 to 40 
acres, unless connected with a general farm, will hardly 
warrant the purchase of a tractor at present prices. There 
should be at least twenty days' work a year for a tractor in 
order that it may be profitable. Four to 5 acres of plow- 
ing or 18 to 20 acres of double discing may be considered 
a day's work for the average tractor. A two-horse team 
will plow about 1^/^ acres a day in the orchard and disc 
from 6 to 7 acres. 

2. A tractor represents a considerable investment. On 
account of the initial cost of a good tractor, efiiciency is 
necessary if sufficient returns are made to pay such over- 
head charges as interest, depreciation, upkeep, and the 
like. A man of limited capital, particularly if he is oper- 
ating a young orchard from which there is little cash 
return, is likely to find a tractor a rather heavy burden 
on his working capital. 

3. Experienced labor is necessary to operate and care 
for a tractor. While the use of such a machine may save 
the labor of one or two additional men, it is important to 
realize that the man who operates a tractor should be exper- 
ienced and have some knowledge of machinery. When 
traced back to their origin, it has been found that a great 
number of complaints with reference to the use of tractors 
are primarily due to the lack of experience and mechanical 
knowledge on the part of the operator. 

4. There is a heavy depreciation when tractors are care- 



170 The Commercial Apple Industry 

lessly handled. When an expensive machine is operated 
by men who have little interest in their work, it will rapidly 
depreciate in value. Careless handling will ruin a good 
tractor in a single season or even in a day. It is exceed- 
ingly important, therefore, that care should be taken to 
keep the machine properly oiled, and in good working 
order. 

5. When a tractor gets out of order, considerable time 
may be lost. Even with experienced operators, break- 
downs may occur, and if a part breaks which can not be 
replaced short of the factory, days may be lost. The prin- 
cipal criticism which many growers have against the trac- 
tor is that some part is always breaking and that it requires 
considerable time and expense for repairs. There is no 
doubt that the average tractor has given considerable 
trouble in this regard, especially when handled by inex- 
perienced men. 

6. Where the fences are near the trees, turning at the end 
of the row is rather difficult on account of the wide culti- 
vating implements commonly drawn by a tractor. This is 
more particularly true of the early tractors than of the 
modern machines recommended for orchard work. In 
most cases, if the tractor is properly hitched to the imple- 
ment, the turn can be made into the next row of trees. It 
is seldom necessary, however, that the turn be made into 
the adjoining row, since the work of cultivation can nearly 
always be carried on just as well by turning into the second 
or third row each time, following the same method as is 
frequently used in cultivating corn in order to avoid short 
turns. Of course in terraced orchards or those planted in 
irregular rows, this plan can not be followed. There is 






Cultivation of the Orchard 171 

nearly always a way to manage the turning if a little ingen- 
uity is exercised. 

In conclusion it may be said that the uses of the tractor 
in fruit-growing have not yet been fully determined or 
appreciated. At present tractors are being used in some 
of the larger orchards of the Middle West, Northwest and 
middle Atlantic states. They are becoming more and 
more popular in connection with the operation of orchards 
and on general farms of western 'New York. It seems 
only a question of time until the tractor will largely dis- 
place the team in cultivating the commercial orchard. 

TEUCK 

The use of the motor truck in connection with apple- 
raising is growing in popularity as rapidly as that of the 
tractor. When long hauls are necessary and the tonnage 
of fruit is large, the motor truck has found great favor. 
In general, the use of a truck will be profitable wherever 
the purchase of a tractor is warranted and in many cases 
in which a tractor is not profitable. 



CHAPTER VIII 
' ^ IRRIOATION 

Irrigation is tlie process of watering land by artificial 
means and is widely practiced in the arid and semi-arid 
apple regions throughout the western states. 

The history of irrigation dates from the earliest times. 
Egyptian and Babylonian records show clearly that irriga- 
tion was known several thousand years b. c. Irrigation 
in America was practiced in prehistoric times by Indian 
tribes of the Southwest, but the first irrigation by English 
speaking people of the United States was by the Mormons 
near Salt Lake City, Utah. Under the g-uidanee of Brig- 
ham Young, the Mormons succeeded in turning the waters 
from the canyons and streams into the desert and first 
proved the possibilities of western irrigation. The history 
of the western fruit regions in nearly every case dates 
from the time that water was put on the land. The Wen- 
atchee district as recently as 1900 was largely a barren 
desert. Now it is one of the leading apple regions of the 
world, producing 12,000 cars of box apples in 1919. 

Irrigation as a factor in the commercial apple industry 
of North America is confined to the apple-growing regions 
west of the Mississippi and the Okanogan district of 
British Columbia. It is most widely practiced in the 
Pacific Northwest. Practically all of the Idaho, Wash- 
ington, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and much of the 

172 



Irrigation 173 

Oregon commercial apple crop is grown under a system of 
intensive irrigation. 

The Hood River Valley of Oregon, while not an arid 
region, employs irrigation in many of its orchards. The 
Rogue River or the Medford district in Oregon was form- 
erly a non-irrigated section but continued drought com- 
pelled the practice of irrigation when possible. The only 
important non-irrigated apple regions in the West are the 
Watsonville and Sebastopol sections of California located 
within a few miles of the coast. 

The irrigated fruit regions differ in many ways from the 
apple sections of the Central West and East. Some of 
their most outstanding characteristics are : 

1. Compactness. All irrigated fruit districts are very 
intensive and compact. They are generally confined 
within a certain limited and well defined area. The typ- 
ical farms are small and the orchards average only about 
ten to twenty acres. Often the orchard of one grower 
borders directly on that of his neighbor, so that the plant- 
ings in an irrigated valley appear as one large orchard 
with but few breaks of land not in trees. 

2. Productivity. Orchards in irrigated sections free 
from frequent frost-injury bear larger annual crops, partly 
because the water supply is largely under control. 

3. Rapid tree growth. Trees in irrigated districts grow 
very rapidly and attain maturity early. Often trees at 
ten years of age are practically in full bearing and in many 
cases even at seven or eight years of age they bear very 
heavily. Trees in the Wenatchee Valley attain maturity 
in about one-half the time required for the same varieties 
in the East. 

4. Trees are set close together. The trees in the irri- 



174 The Commercial Apple Industry 

gated districts usually will average twice as many to the 
acre as under the same conditions in the East; that is, a 
ten-year-old orchard in Wenatchee will have from 80 to 
100 trees to the acre, while in N'ew York 40 to 50 trees 
would be considered sufficient. A fully matured orchard 
in the northwestern regions will usually contain as many 
as 75 trees to the acre, while the New York growers claim 
that 30 trees is sufficient. Thus the trees of the North- 
west do not attain such large size although they grow more 
rapidly and attain maturity more quickly. 

5. Trees of the irrigated regions have a shorter life 
than those under natural or un-irrigated conditions. 
Although niost irrigated sections are as yet young, there 
are definite evidences that the irrigated orchard is much 
shorter lived than the eastern plantation. Trees that 
attain maturity at such an early age under artificial condi- 
tions cannot continue to maintain vegetative vigor and 
health indefinitely.' As yet it cannot be said just what 
the life of an irrigated orchard under good management 
may be, but from present indications it would seem that 
thirty years would about mark the life of the average irri- 
gated orchard. It is certain that trees are ordinarily most 
profitable and at their best under irrigated conditions 
between the ages of ten and twenty years. 

6. Irrigated regions are usually free from fungus. Se- 
rious trouble only appears in the semi-irrigated regions like 
Hood River Valley where the rainfall is as great as that in 
western New York, but where orchards generally are under 
irrigation, due to the rainfall coming at the VTrong season 
of the year. There is little fimgus difficulty in the 
famous Yakima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington or 
in the irrigated districts of Idaho, Colorado, Utah and 



Irrigation 175 

New Mexico. In this connection, however, it might be 
well to say that the codlin-moth is generally very much 
more active and difficult to control than under eastern con- 
ditions and particularly has this been true of late years. 

7. Trees in irrigated regions require detailed care every 
year. A grower in an irrigated district must pay strict 
attention to his orchard if it is to survive or he is to 
secure any profit out of it. It is absolutely necessary that 
it be irrigated and if this highly important operation is 
neglected for a single season, the orchard is ruined. Fur- 
thermore, if the irrigating is left to inexperienced hands, 
the trees are likely to be over-irrigated or under-irrigated 
to such an extent that they will be injured permanently. 
Great care also is necessary to s'ee that the water is not 
allowed to stand on the land or applied at the wrong time. 
Under eastern conditions, none of these things is necessary, 
so that orchards which have been neglected not for one 
year but perhaps several, may often be brought back to 
profitable bearing. This, however, cannot happen in the 
Northwest. This partly accounts for the fact that the 
average northwestern grower is as a rule more thorough 
and scientific than the average eastern grower. The north- 
western owner must be thorough or hiis orchard will not 
live. The orchard under eastern conditions can usually 
survive even if somewhat neglected. 

8. In irrigated regions the fruit is usually graded, 
packed, wrapped and boxed very carefully, while apples 
under non-irrigated conditions, as a general rule, are not 
graded or packed as carefully and are seldom wrapped. 
With the exception of California, fruit in non-irrigated 
regions is not boxed to any great degree. Fruit is never 
barreled in irrigated regions. It may be said that in 90 



176 The Commercial Apple Industry 

per cent of all cases, irrigated regions produce boxed fruit 
and non-irrigated regions barreled or bulk fruit. 

9. Land in irrigated regions is expensive and the fixed 
costs or overhead charges are high. Bearing orchard land 
in the Wenatchee Valley is capitalized at nearly $2,000 an 
acre. In fact, land in bearing orchards in nearly all irri- 
gated districts is valued at $1,000 an acre or more. Fur- 
thermore, interest rates in the Northwest, where these irri- 
gated regions are located, are higher than in the East, 
From 7 to 8 per cent in the JSTorthwest is a common interest 
rate which growers have to face. Thus it is important to 
realize that orchards in irrigated districts, even though the 
acreage is small, are often valued and actually capitalized 
at a much larger figure than those of the Central West and 
East which may be from two to three times their acreage. 

10. Irrigated districts are as yet somewhat isolated, 
while non-irrigated localities are close to important 
markets. The great bulk of the fruit from irrigated 
regions has to travel from 1,000 to 3,000 miles to market. 
Only a very high grade of fruit of superior marketable 
quality can hope to compete successfully with fruit grown 
in eastern districts. At present the northwestern grower 
puts his fruit up in such good condition that he can put it 
on the market in the heart of the barreled producing sec- 
tion and sell it quite readily even if there is great barreled 
competition. The difficulty of moving the fruit, due to car 
shortages, has been a drawback to the Northwest fruit in- 
dustry the past few years. 

The above points are important in differentiating 
between the characteristics of the irrigated and non-irri- 
gated regions of the United States. There are many minor 
ones, such as systems of orchard management which are 



I 



Irrigation 177 

practiced in irrigated regions and which differ somewhat 
from eastern conditions, but in general the above differ- 
ences define quite clearly the characteristics of the two 
types of orcharding. 

CHOOSING AN IKEIGATED DISTRICT 

Certain points are important to remember when selecting 
an irrigated district. When the great orchard irrigation 
projects of the West were widely advertised, men from 
middle west and eastern farms and cities flocked to the 
West and bought orchard land indiscriminately. They 
paid, at first, too much attention to scenery and the adver- 
tising pamphlets of the promoters. It did not seem to 
enter their minds that such things as liability to frost 
damage, air drainage, priority of water right and the loca- 
tion of the land, as to whether it could be economically 
irrigated or not, were of great importance. One of the 
greatest mistakes which early investors made was in locat- 
ing on land liable to seepage, that is, land on which alkali 
showed up after a few years of irrigation, caused either by 
direct irrigation of that particular plot of land or some- 
times by the water seeping down from the tracts of land 
higher up. 

The definite points to consider when locating in the irri- 
gated regions are : 

1. The history of the region as regards frosts should be 
studied. Frosts have been the limiting factor in success- 
ful production in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico, 
Utah, and Idaho. More orchardists have failed through 
frost damage in successive years than from any other single 
factor affecting production. Certain parts of western 
Colorado are so liable to frost damage as to render profit- 



178 The Commercial Apple Industry 

able fruit-growing impossible. Frosts seem to be very- 
local in these irrigated regions, that is, certain mesas or 
limited areas are much more liable to damage than others. 
The most notable example of how important it is to note 
the liability to frost in these irrigated districts occurs in 
the Grand Valley. A few miles above the town of Grand 
Junction is located the town of Palisades, about which is 
grouped a very intensive and highly specialized peach in- 
dustry. Palisades lies in a very narrow part of the Grand 
Valley on either side of which are large cliffs known as 
the Book Cliffs. These radiate heat during the night which 
together with better air drainage combine so that frosts 
in the blooming season are rare. A few miles down the 
valley and about Grand Junction itself, frosts are so com- 
mon that fruit-growers have become somewhat discouraged. 
Peach-growing on this account has been entirely elim- 
inated. Destructive frosts seldom occur in the Wenatchee 
Valley of Washington and rarely in the Hood River Valley 
of Oregon. They occur very frequently in most of the 
irrigated districts of Colorado, N^ew Mexico, Idaho, Utah 
and Montana and in some of the irrigated sections of 
Oregon and Washington. 

2, Land not liable to seepage should be chosen. In some 
districts alkali has appeared on the surface of the soil and 
the trees have lost their vigor and died. Thousands of 
acres of land have been lost in the Grand Valley of Colo- 
rado through this cause alone and many have become bank- 
rupt who started out with the rosiest prospect. Land in 
trees which has gone to seep is hardly worth trying to re- 
claim as far as saving the orchard is concerned. 

It is extremely important that irrigated lands be well 
drained so that water cannot stand on them for indefinite 



Irrigation 179 

periods. It is also important that these lands lie so that 
waste water from orchards which may be higher up or 
nearer the irrigation canal does not continually seep down 
on to the land at lower levels. 

To go fully into a discussion of alkali and the danger 
and causes of its appearance would require a book in itself. 
It is sufficient to state here that too great emphasis cannot 
be placed on the problem of alkali soil and it is very im- 
portant that the fruit-growers strive to avoid orchard sites 
where it is present. Enough is known about the liabilities 
of soils to seep at the present time so that any engineer 
or topography expert familiar with the particular region 
should be able to state quite definitely the relative danger 
in this regard. Narrow valleys are much less liable to 
be troubled with alkali than the broader and larger valleys. 
There is no alkali in the Hood River Valley of Oregon 
and the Wenatchee Valley of Washington and very little in 
the Yakima Valley. 

3. The third important point to be remembered in select- 
ing soil for irrigation is to see that the land can be irrigated 
economically. In numberless instances, orchards have 
been set out on land above the main irrigation canal or on 
land near no canal and dependence put entirely on pump- 
ing systems or small private irrigation systems. In many 
cases orchards irrigated in this way have succeeded; 
however, in most cases irrigation is so expensive and 
water has so often been difficult to obtain at the proper 
time, that in years of poor prices or light crops the grower 
has not been able to compete with orchards under system- 
atically installed and bonded irrigation systems. In cer- 
tain limited sections, the annual water rent charge is as 
high as $25 an acre. This is prohibitive. In most dis- 



180 The Commercial Apple Industry 

tricts it is between 50 cents and $2.50 an acre; $1,50 is 
about the average annual charge. Aside from this, how- 
ever, the original water right usually costs around $75 an 
acre under private irrigation projects. Therefore, it is 
extremely important when purchasing land to see that it 
can be- irrigated economically and that the annual water 
rent charge is not prohibitive, or if it is necessary to pump 
the water one should carefully determine whether or not 
this is feasible. There are of course artesian wells in some 
of the more southern sections, but as they occur in so few 
of the fruit districts they hardly enter the discussion here. 

4. It is important to consider the priority of water right. 
It often happens that growers are located at the end of 
the irrigating system or canal and in cases in which the 
water supply is scarce they sometimes have insufficient 
water for their orchards. This has happened sometimes 
in the Wenatchee Valley of Washington, where growers in 
the lower part of the valley were insufficiently supplied 
with water" at the critical time. In other valleys of the 
Northwest, many instances might be cited where the 
grower has been forced to use the waste water from the 
orchard of his neighbor in order to secure sufficient to 
supply his own land. The buyer unacquainted with irri- 
gation and irrigating systems, therefore, should look care- 
fully into the probability of having guaranteed water 
rights. One year without irrigation in most sections will 
usually mean the destruction of the trees. There are many 
other points to be considered, such as the proper slope for 
easy irrigation. 

It is impossible here to enter into the engineering fea- 
tures of irrigation and one should have the advice of a 
competent engineer in laying out the main laterals. 



I 



Irrigation 181 

lEEIGATING THE ORCHAED 

In the discussiou of orchard irrigation, so many factors 
enter into the problem, each of which is modified to a great 
degree, depending on the soil, ages of trees and various 
other conditions, that no set of rules can be laid down. 
The three problems to consider in actually irrigating an 
orchard are : amount of water to apply, when to apply it, 
and the means of application. 

Quantity of water to supply. 

When water is abundant, there is always a tendency to 
over-irrigate. It should be borne in mind that irrigation 
is only supplemental to natural precipitation and every 
effort should be made to conserve the natural moisture. 
Excessive irrigation causes leaching of plant-food and is 
injurious to the soil. The basis of water distribution is 
variable. In general it may be said to vary from 35 to 
100 acres to a second-foot. Expressed in acre-inches, the 
average amount used in a year would cover each acre to a 
depth of about 36 inches. This is augmented by the 
normal precipitation which in mopt irrigated districts does 
not exceed 10 to 12 inches per annum. The common unit, 
for instance, for water distribution in the Wenatchee Val- 
ley is the miner's inch (one-fiftieth of a cubic foot a second). 
The prevailing rate of distribution in this region is one 
miner's inch to two acres. 

The water requirement of different soils is somewhat 
variable. With a rich soil the water requirement is rela- 
tively low, while with a leached soil it is high. The prac- 
tice of growing leguminous shade or cover-crops in irrigated 
orchards (usually alfalfa) has appreciably increased the 



182 The Commercial Apple Industry 

water requirements. The Hood Eiver Valley, with an 
average rainfall of about 35 inches per annum, found 
irrigation necessary, whenever cover-crops were grown. 

Time to irrigate orchards. 

In practice, the fruit-grower recognizes the need of 
applying water by a slight change in the color and rigidity 
of the foliage. It is unwise to wait until the trees begin 
to show signs of wilting, since this delay may prove injur- 
ious. It is equally unwise to pour on water just because 
it is available. Over-irrigation should be guarded against. 

It is generally thought that the amount of free water in 
the upper three or four feet of soil should range between 
6 to 10 per cent. For the inexperienced, the following 
simple test is suggested : Soil samples should be taken from 
a depth of about 3 feet. Measure out 6 pounds and 4 
ounces (100 ounces) of soil, expose this to a bright sun for 
the greater part of a day, and then re-weigh. The number 
of ounces lost will correspond to the percentage of free 
water. If the loss is less than 6 ounces the soil probably 
should be irrigated. More than 10 per cent loss will indi- 
cate a super-abundance of water. 

Number of applications. 

' In the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, the first irriga- 
tion is usually given about the first of May, depending 
on the soil, the slope, and amount of winter rains. A south 
slope requires water probably two or three weeks earlier 
than heavy soil or a steep north slope. In Idaho, the 
first application of water is usually about the first of June, 
while in Hood River the water is turned on between June 
first and fifteenth. 



Irrigation 183 

Correct timing of the first irrigation is exceedingly 
important and will depend somewhat on the amount of 
winter rains. It is thought that early irrigation tends 
materially to reduce the June drop. If the trees are kept 
growing vigorously, they will not usually suffer excessive 
drop. The spraying operations must be considered in rela- 
tion to the time of irrigation in order that the soil may be 
sufficiently dry to permit the hauling of the spray outfit. 
It is desirable that the water supply be continuous rather 
than intermittent in order that the grower may definitely 
plan his work and not be kept waiting for water at critical 
times. 

The number of irrigations varies but will average from 
four to five in a season, being made at intervals of twenty 
to thirty days. A light sandy soil which is not retentive 
of moisture must be irrigated every two or three weeks. 

There is a noticeable tendency in late irrigations to 
swell the size of the fruit. This practice detracts from its 
keeping qualities and flavor. Excessively large apples 
tend to go down in storage. Heavy late irrigations, fur- 
thermore, increase loss from scald and bitter-pit. It is 
best to irrigate heavily up until about August fifteenth 
and then gradually taper off. Ordinarily no irrigation 
should be made after September fifth. 

METHODS OF IRRIGATION 

Originally water was supplied to the western apple 
orchards through earthen ditches. With the increasing 
scarcity of water, there has been a pronounced tendency 
towards lining the main canals in order to make them 
water-tight and to install underground piping to distribute 
water to the highest point in the orchard or along the high- 



184: The Commercial Apple Industry 

est ridge. The use of concrete or other "underground 
piping, together with standpipes, for carrying the water 
to the upper end of the furrows is unquestionably the most 
efficient system of distribution. Whether such an invest- 
ment will prove economical depends on the scarcity of 
water and the returns obtained from the land. The 
earthen ditch or cheap wooden flume may be the more 
economical. 

The actual application of water to the soil is usually 
accomplished by means of furrows or rills. The length 
of the rills ordinarily varies from 200 to 600 feet, depend- 
ing on the slope and character of the soil. With sandy 
soils or steep slopes, the rills should be short and narrow 
at the bottom in order that washing will not occur or over- 
irrigation of the upper end of the tract at the expense of 
the lower lands. With gentler slopes and heavy soil, the 
furrows may be very much longer and also wider at the 
bottom, in order to promote percolation. The depth of 
furrows usually varies from four to six inches, although 
there is a tendency towards deeper rilling, eight inches 
being recommended by some in order that the first few 
inches of surface soil may be kept partially dry. When 
the top of the soil is moist, there is excessive loss through 
evaporation. If the land is very steep, a very small stream 
is necessary in order to prevent washing. With light 
porous soils the furrows are made shallow, narrow at the 
bottom and relatively close together, the water being run 
through quickly and under a heavy head of water. 

The number of furrows in a tree row varies from two 
to six, five being the most common. (See Plate X.) The 
irrigator tries to get the first row within three feet of the 
tree row and spaces the remaining ones at a distance of 



Irrigation 185 

three to four feet apart. Shallow rills require closer spac- 
ing. With very young trees, a furrow on either side of 
the tree row is usually sufficient. This plan is also fol- 
lowed with mature trees where a shortage of water occurs 
in order to get over as much land as possible. Ordinarily 
with full bearing trees, the entire surface of the land is 
watered. 

The most common implements for making furrows are 
the six-foot cultivator, with the three shovels attached and 
the single shovel plow. The latter implement is frequently 
used for making the furrows close to the tree rows. A 
single furrowing during a season usually suffices when the 
orchards are in alfalfa, although occasionally the orchardist 
finds it necessary to open up the rills late in the season. 
Cultivation between irrigations entails the replacing of the 
rills. 

The operation of turning the water on the land is termed 
a " set." It is usually necessary to make several sets if 
the orchard is large. The irrigator turns his entire head 
of water into a few furrows and allows it to run from 
twelve to seventy-two hours, varying with the type and 
condition of the soil. The water is allowed to run, until 
by a slow lateral movement it saturates the soil between 
the furrows. When the orchardist finds that sufficient 
saturation has taken place, he turns the water into another 
portion of the orchard and so on until the entire area is 
irrigated. 

Flooding is practiced in a limited way and under this 
system the water seeks its own course over a strip usually 
a few tree rows wide. This practice has been largely 
superceded by furrowing. 



CHAPTEE IX 

FERTILIZING THE COMMERCIAL 
APPLE ORCHARD 

Fertilizing is one of the many important orchard oper- 
ations and one about which much has been said and writ- 
ten, and yet few definite conclusions have been published. 
Many state experiment stations and individuals have exper- 
imented with orchard fertilizing from time to time and 
much has been written about the values of different sys- 
tems. In many cases, however, erroneous conclusions have 
been drawn because of outside influences which intervened 
to destroy the value of the experiment. For that reason 
increased or decreased yields have been attributed to the 
use of certain fertilizers, when as a matter of fact they 
were due to other causes. As a result of the many contra- 
dictory statements published on fertilizing, this important 
orchard operation is the one practiced least systematically. 

The wide difference in soil conditions complicates much 
of the experimental data on this subject. Means and 
methods of application practiced in the different regions 
are also variable. In all experimental reports there are 
some definite conclusions on which most investigators 
agree. One point definitely brought out is the great value 
of such nitrogenous fertilizers as nitrate of soda and stable 
manure to nearly all orchard sections. 

A prominent investigator of orchard fertilization is J. 
P. Stewart, and long-standing and interesting experiments 

186 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orohard 187 

have been conducted bj the Pennsylvania State College 
under his direction. The results of his work in general 
are of great interest and are more applicable to the 
eastern conditions under v^^hich they were obtained. Other 
important experiments have been made by various state 
experiment stations, particularly those of Ohio and Oregon. 
C. I. Lewis and E. J. Kraus of Oregon have offered valu- 
able contributions on this subject. Thorough investiga- 
tions have been conducted by experiment stations in Ohio, 
Kew York, New H-ampshire, Virginia, Indiana and other 
states. 

PEESENT PKACTICES IN FEKTILIZING 

Before discussing the results and conclusions arrived 
at by these and other investigators, it is of interest to note 
the general practices followed throughout the different 
commercial areas and the attitude of the average com- 
mercial grower toward fertilizing. It is only within recent 
years that the grower has given any great degree of atten- 
tion to this important subject. However, as with spray- 
ing, fertilizing is becoming more and more general and 
necessary. As yet, however, great numbers of growers 
do not realize its value. Many are- content to allow their 
orchards to bear very small or medium-sized crops when a 
few dollars expended in the purchase and application of 
stable manure or commercial fertilizers would greatly in- 
crease their returns at a minimum price a barrel or box. 
It is only a question of time until the fertility of soils will 
become depleted. It remains, therefore, for the minority 
of growers, those few who use fertilizer, to convince or- 
chardists generally of the great value and increased profit 
to be derived from judicious use of variousr fertilizers. 



188 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Throughout the East and Middle West it is rather a 
common practice to apply stable manure to the orchard. 
This is particularly the case in western I^ew York where 
considerable stable manure is available for this purpose,*^ 
and where its valuer seems to be appreciated as much orl 
more than in any. other section. The value of stable 
manure is recognized to a greater or less extent in most 
of the important apple regions of the East and fruit- 
growers usually apply to their orchards all the manure 
which is readily available. As yet, however, many grow- 
ers hesitate to go to any considerable expense in buying 
manure from the cities in carload lots. In general, those 
who have adopted the latter practice have found that it is 
highly profitable. 

In the Far West, the practice of using stable- manure is 
not general. The orchards are small, highly intensive and 
do not permit the keeping of much live-stock. For this 
reason manure is not readily available. In western 
orchards the general method of securing nitrogenous fertil- 
izer is by growing leguminous shade and cover-crops. The 
Hood Eiver region in Oregon has probably used more 
commercial fertilizer than any other western section. 

In the southern Ohio Rome Beauty district, nitrate of 
soda is employed extensively as an orchard fertilizer. 
Annual applications vary from 3 to 9 pounds to a tree. 
Nitrate of soda is used to a greater or less extent in various 
other eastern districts, but in no section is* its application 
so general as the Rome Beauty district of southern Ohio. 

VALUE OF STABLE MANURE 

Kearly all growers agree that the beneficial effects of 
stable manure are apparent in increased tree growth and 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 189 

fruit production. Stable manure not only supplements 
the available plant-food, but has the additional advantage 
of keeping the soil " alive " and of adding to its capacity 
to conserve moisture. It makes the food already in the 
soil more available and permits freer circulation of air. 

It may be definitely stated that stable manure has given 
uniformly excellent results in the various commercial dis- 
tricts throughout the country. (Other fertilizers have not 
been so widely tested.) Annual application, of 8 to 10 
tons to the acre in a well-managed orchard is usually suffi- 
cient to secure good annual crops, although a less amount 
is very beneficial. Some growers prefer to make heavy 
applications every three or four years, applying from 25 
to 30 tons to the acre, or from 15 to 20 tons every other 
year. A few ]^ew York growers are the most common 
practitioners of this method. New York orchards with 
their large and old trees can utilize profitably a very large 
amount of plant-food. 

Careful cost-accounting records taken on about 400 farms 
in the western New York apple belt show that orchards 
which are given annual applications of manure, and in 
which legTiminous cover-crops are grown, give the highest 
annual yields and are the most profitable. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH FEETELIZERS 

Research work of Kraus and Krayhill. 

A discussion of fertilizing would not be complete with- 
out a consideration of the work of Kraus and Kraybill, 
who have made the most exhaustive research investigation 
regarding the relation of plant vigor to cultivation and 
nitrogenous fertilizer. 



190 The Commercial Apple Industry 

These investigators found that by dividing plants into 
three groups a certain definite relation is brought out 
between the nitrogen and carbohydrates present in the 
different groups. These groups are. divided as follows : 

Group 1. Those plants which seem to be extremely vig- 
orous but rarely bloom, and if they do bloom, set but little 
fruit. 

Group 2. Those plants which make a very fair growth 
and seem to be in good vigor, bear very abundantly and 
produce a large number of clusters, the blossoms of which 
readily set fruit. 

Group 3. Those plants which are less vigorous than the 
second group, bloom profusely, but set fruit very sparingly. 

A chemical analysis of the plants in these groups shows 
that: (1) those of the first group always contain an abund- 
ance of moisture and nitrogenous compounds; (2) those 
in the second contain a relatively smaller amount of nitro- 
genous compound as compared with the carbohydrates 
(sugars and starches) ; (3) the plants of the third, group 
contain still less of the nitrates and proportionately much 
more of the carbohydrates than the second group. It is 
shown rather conclusively from these experiments that 
there must be a certain mathematical relation between the 
nitrates and the carbohydrates in order to secure the best 
results. 

The results of these studies directly apply to the apple. 
Examples of the first group are commonly found in trees 
from one to seven years of age which have a great abund- 
ance of nitrogen as compared with the amount of carbo- 
hydrates, such a condition being encouraged by intensive 
tillage, severe heading of trees or use of nitrogenous fertil- 
izers. As a result, considerable wood growth but little 




Plate XI. — Insect pests of the apple. Upper, On left, apples 
in proper condition for first codlin-moth spray : on the right too 
late for effective spraying. Middle, Work of codlin-moth or 
common apple worm in the apple. Lotoer, Young apples injured 
by the fruit-tree leaf-roller, an insect prevalent in Fremont 
County, Colorado, and often in New York and other barreled 
sections. 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 191 

fruit is secured. It is found by reducing tillage, pruning 
and other stimulating operations, that one automatically 
reduces the relative proportion of raw sap and nitrogen 
and allows the increased leaf areas to manufacture more 
concentrated food, such as sugars and starches. As a 
result, such trees begin to form buds, produce fruit and 
thereby pass into the second class. 

In the third group or class of trees, the nitrates have 
become much reduced in proportion to the carbohydrates. 
As a result, the leaves become yellow and thin, the spurs 
begin to die and the set of fruit is poor. The trees are 
starving for nitrates amid plenty of sugars and starches. 
This explains how a relatively small amount of nitrate 
added in the spring often produces such remarkable results. 
It once more restores the balance between the carbohydrates 
and the nitrates. When a proper balance is seemingly 
reached between these two, the proper vegetative growth 
and fruitfulness is secured. Such trees then would be 
classed in Group 2 and, therefore, approach the ideal con- 
dition for fruitfulness. Every effort should be made to 
maintain them in this condition. Good cultivation, the 
growth of legumes or moderate applications of nitrate of 
soda will usually serve to maintain the proper balance 
between the nitrates and carbohydrates. Acid phosphates 
may also be necessary. 

Experiments in Pennsylvania. 

In a series of experiments carried out under the direc- 
tion of J. P. Stewart in Pennsylvania, the following con- 
clusions seemed to be more or less definitely established: 

1. It was found that nitrogen, of all food elements, was 



192 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the most influential in improving both annual yield and 
growth, 

2. In order to dispel any apprehension of great expense 
involved in applying nitrate of soda, it may be stated that 
during a ten-year period nitrate of soda was applied at a 
cost of 9 cents a bushel of fruit produced, or 27 cents a 
barrel ; and as nitrate was figured at a war time cost of 
$100 a ton, this shows that even with a very high price the 
great increase in yield would soon pay for the fertilizer. 
In these experiments, nitrate of soda was applied at the 
rate of 4 to 8 pounds to a tree. 

^ 3, " It was found that nitrogen from commercial 
sources or from stable manure proved more effective than 
that from cover-crop as a rule." Nitrogen from commer- 
cial fertilizers and from stable manure was particularly 
effective when accompanied with the proper cultural 
methods. 

4. " The addition of phosphorus or potash to nitrogen 
applications has usually given larger returns than nitrogen 
alone. The nitrogen and phosphorus combination has pro- 
duced an average increase over the normal yields in two 
experiments of 265 and 308 bushels per acre annually dur- 
ing 9- and 10-year periods. This combination is also 
proving important in one of the experiments in young 
orchards. In at least three of the other bearing orchards, 
however, the addition of phosphorus has resulted in no 
important benefit." 

5. " Neither phosphorus nor lime, when used alone, has 
shown any important influence on either yield or growth 
in apples. Lime may often have some indirect value, how- 
ever, through its favorable influence on leguminous covers 

1 Quotations from State Coll. Bull., No. 153. 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 193 

or intercrops, and possibly as an accompaniment of fertil- 
izer applications. In the latter relation its chief effect 
has been on growth. Phosphorus is also generally valu- 
able in connection with leguminous covers." 

6. Potash, when applied alone, gave an increased yield 
in some experiments, a material increase in a few, but in 
some instances had an injurious effect. On account of the 
impossibility of defining just what the soil ne'eds without 
experimentation, it is better to defer general use of potash 
until definite evidence of its value is secured. This can 
be done through a home experiment as outlined later in 
this chapter. 

7. " The red color in apples can not be increased mate- 
rially by any kind of fertilization, although potash and 
possibly phosphorus may sometimes assist very slightly. 
These colors are directly dependent on sunlight and matur- 
ity, with the latter occurring preferably on the tree. 
Hence such influences as normal development, late picking, 
light soils, open pruning, and mildly injurious or defoliat- 
ing sprays are the chief practical means of increasing the 
reds in fruits, while opposite conditions tend to decrease 
them." 

8. " The distinctly retarding influence of nitrogenous 
fertilizers and manure on color is simply due to delayed 
maturity, and is often an advantage in the case of the more 
northern varieties, such as Baldwin, Hubbardston and 
Mcintosh, when grown in Pennsylvania. In such varie- 
ties, the color reduction is readily overcome by deferring 
the picking. With the York Imperial and similar, long- 
seasoned varieties, however, it may also be necessary to use 
nitrogen more sparingly and to utilize the other direct 
aids to color as much as possible." 



194 The Commercial Apple Industry 

9. " In these experiments, fertilization has usually had 
very little influence on the average size of the fruit. This 
is apparently because it acted primarily in increasing the 
total amount of fruit and foliage on the tree, both of which 
influences tended to decrease the average size of the fruit. 
Manure, however, usually secured a fair increase in size, 
probably chiefly because of its moisture-conserving effect. 
The importance of moisture is evident from the fact that 
water forms about 85 per cent of the average fruit. The 
chief means of increasing the size of the fruit, therefore, 
are proper thinning and moisture conservation." 

10. " Evidence elsewhere indicates that the time of ap- 
plication is important, especially for nitrogen. It ap- 
pears that nitrogen carried in nitrate of soda may often 
distinctly increase the crop of the current season if the 
application is made at the right time. This time seems to 
be about when the buds are beginning to open in the spring, , 
or slightly later. When the applications are made much 
later than this, or when the slower-acting carriers of nitro- 
gen are used, such as dried blood or manure, no important 
effects should be expected before the following year. The 
later applications, however, are often used in steadying the 
yields from year to year and hence should not be 
neglected." It should be borne in mind that the above 
conclusions are more applicable to the East. 

There is a variance in opinion among experimenters as 
to how soon an appreciable influence is derived from 
application of nitrate of soda. Some feel that if applied 
well in advance of the bloom, it will materially increase the 
set of blossoms the same season. It is more commonly 
thought that siDce the morphology of the bud is determined 
in the preceding season, the application of nitrate can have 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 195 

little or no effect on the set of blossoms of the current 
season. 

It has been found that many failures with potash and 
phosphorus are due to a deficient nitrogen supply. It is 
quite a common belief that if fertility is low all the ele- 
ments of plant-food are needed, when very often the soil 
is deficient only in one or two elements. Potash and phos- 
phorus, if not actually required, may tend to check or bal- 
ance any ill effects of nitrogen. Therefore, it is generally 
recommended by Stewart that for the average orchard, 
an application of 500 pounds to the acre of 6-8-5 fertilizer 
be employed. This means a fertilizer carrying 6 per cent 
of nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphorus and 5 per cent potash. 
If commercial fertilizer is not used and stable manure is 
available, it is recommended that about 8 tons of the latter 
be applied annually to an acre, especially when the trees 
indicate the immediate need of fertilizing. Commercial 
nitrogenous fertilizer, especially nitrate of soda, is quicker 
in action than manure, and the same is claimed for sul- 
fate of ammonia. It is generally concluded that in case 
of young trees stable manure is more satisfactory, as it 
usually furnishes all deficient elements of plant-food 
needed for growth. A good system for mature trees, under 
middle western and eastern conditions, is to apply nitrate 
of soda, 4 to 8 pounds, acid phosphate, 6 to 8 pounds, and 
muriate of potash, 2 or 3 pounds to a tree. Of these fertil- 
izers, nitrogen is the most important and likely to be most 
needed. 

Nitrate experiments hy Lewis. 

The Oregon experiments by Lewis have brought out 
some additional conclusions with regard to the application 



196 The Commercial Apple Industry 

of nitrogen and at the same time have confirmed several 
of the results obtained elsewhere. While Stewart recom- 
mends 4 to 8 pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree, Lewis 
advises 3 to 4 pounds. This difference in opinion, how- 
ever, may be accounted for by the variance in conditions. 
The Lewis recommendations refer to northwestern condi- 
tions where the trees are much smaller than those of the 
East, while Stewart's findings are more applicable to the 
older and larger trees of the East. The recommendations 
and results emphasized by Lewis as applying particularly 
to the northwestern conditions are as follows: 

1. An application of 5 pounds of nitrate of soda quickly 
restored devitalized trees. 

2. The benefits of nitrate application were quickly 
apparent, as shown in the dark green foliage. 

3. Nitrates stimulated the wood growth. 

4. Nitrate of soda produced much more attractive blos- 
soms and a much better set, even in the current season 
when application was made a month in advance of the 
bloom. (Some experimenters disagree.) 

5. A much larger percentage of the bloom set fruit on 
fertilized trees than in the case of trees which had not 
received this treatment. 

6. There is a greater tendency for the fertilized tree to 
bloom more annually and evenly. 

7. It was shown very conclusively that nitrate of soda is 
the cause of greatly increased yields. 

8. Nitrate has a direct effect on the marketable quality 
of the fruit, causing the specimens or individual apples to 
become much larger than those on unfertilized trees. 
This is somewhat at variance with Stewart's conclusions 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 197 

which were to the effect that the size of the fruit is little 
affected by fertilizer. 

9. The degree of color on red varieties receiving nitrate 
was not as high on the whole as those which received none, 
but good commercial color was easily secured unless 
amounts of nitrate used were excessive. 

10. It was found that up to a certain amount, the 
response to nitrate of soda was in direct proportion to the 
quantity of fertilizer used. However, 3 to 5 pounds to a 
tree under normal conditions was more satisfactory than 
larger amounts. Some applications in excess of 5 pounds 
to a tree, although increasing the total fruit produced, 
lowered the color to a point seriously detracting from the 
commercial quality. 

11. It was found that the influence of nitrate was more 
marked in heavy crop years than in years of light produc- 
tion. 

12. The benefits from the use of nitrate extended over 
a period including two seasons from the date of applica- 
tion. 

13. The greatest benefit came from applying nitrate to 
devitalized trees which had received continuous clean 
tillage. 

14. Best results were obtained when nitrate was applied 
about a month before the tree bloomed. 

It was found at the Oregon station that Yellow New- 
town trees which received early fertilizing averaged 7.9 
boxes to a tree while late fertilized trees averaged much 
less. In the case of the Esopus (Spitzenburg), the early 
fertilized trees averaged 10.83 boxes to a tree while the 
late fertilized trees averaged much less. The results of 



198 The Commercial Apple Industry 

this experiment indicate that application must be made 
early if appreciable effects are to be obtained the current 
season. By comparing such experimental data as is avail- 
able at the present time and from data secured froni indi- 
vidual growers in various parts of the country, the authors 
recommend early application of nitrate of soda, preferably 
a month before blooming. This recommendation applies 
to both eastern and western conditions. 

' AMOUNT OF FEETILIZEK TO A TEEE 

The amount of fertilizer to be applied must necessarily 
vary with the size, age and vigor of the tree. Although 
nitrogen is likely to be the most needed element, if orchard 
soils show general depletion, an application of acid phos- 
phate 6 to 10 pounds to a tree and muriate of potash 2 to 
3 pounds to a tree, as well as nitrate, is usually advisable. 
Under northwestern conditions, 5 pounds of nitrate of soda 
to a bearing tree is probably sufficient to restore fertility. 
Under eastern conditions where trees are older and fruit- 
ing surface is greater, larger amounts are advisable, 6 to 8 
pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree being usually recom- 
mended. These amounts are for trees which show a dis- 
tinct need of fertilization. Lesser amounts will suffice 
where need is not so evident. If trees are healthy, but 
are still making onl}^ small annual growth, if foliage tends 
to be pale green or yellow and also sparse in the late sum- 
mer or fall, and if crops are only medium to light, it is 
highly probable that fertilization will be profitable and 
particularly the application of nitrate of soda. To deter- 
mine the needs of the soil, some actual test should precede 
any wide general treatment. As a rule, young healthy 
orchards do not require fertilizing. Older orchards will 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 199 

usually respond to moderate applications of nitrate of 
soda, even though they may have no clear indication of the 
need. In such cases, the amounts to be applied should 
be reduced. 



NEEDS OF IRRIGATED REGIONS 

The importance of nitrogen as the limiting element of 
plant-food is emphasized under western irrigated condi- 
tions where the nitrogen-content of the soil is soon 
exhausted unless replenished by the growing of legumes or 
by application of manure or commercial fertilizer. The 
system of clean culture with irrigation, practiced so exten- 
sively at one time in the Northwest, caused more or less 
rapid depletion of humus and nitrogen. The results of 
this harmful practice became very evident in the famous 
Hood River Valley of Oregon. In about 1915, the 
orchards of this well-known region were producing rather 
small annual crops; the foliage was beginning to take on 
a yellow appearance, particularly in the non-irrigated 
orchards where no leguminous shade-crops were grown. 
It became apparent that some change in orchard manage- 
ment was necessary to bring back the yields and vigor of 
the trees to normal. It was in these circumstances that the 
value of nitrate of soda was demonstrated. While the 
importance of nitrates as commercial fertilizers is recog- 
nized in the Pacific Northwest, and particularly in Ore- 
gon, the value of acid phosphate and potash commonly 
recommended in the East in conjunction with nitrates has 
I not been established in the irrigated regions. In other 
^ words, eastern orchards more commonly require general 
.jfertilization, while northwestern plantings are not likely 



300 The Commercial Apple Industry 

to require anything but nitrogen. This need is being sup- 
plied in part by the quite general practice of growing 
leguminous shade-crops. 

NITEATE OF SODA 

Nitrate of soda as a fertilizer will be more and more 
widely used. At first the commercial apple-growers looked 
askance at this means of maintaining soil fertility, there 
being a theory that once given nitrate of soda treatment a 
tree would require continual stimulation. This theory has 
been disproved, however, and a single application of nitrate 
of soda may prove beneficial whether later applications are 
made or not. Continued moderate application at intervals 
of about two years may prove desirable, however. 

Hood River, Oregon, has been mentioned as one region 
in which this form of fertilization has proved profitable. 
The value of nitrate of soda is also recognized in the 
Ozarks, southern Indiana, western Michigan, in Virginia 
and particularly in southern Ohio. Wherever the soil 
is naturally deficient in nitrogen or where the nitrogen 
has been exhausted through the planting of other crops, 
this deficiency can and should be quickly remedied. 

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZEKS 

It may not always pay to apply commercial fertilizers 
indiscriminately to all trees in an orchard. In other 
words, one may profitably single out trees which are in need 
of treatment and omit others. In the average orchard, 
there will be many trees which are growing vigorously and 
fruiting well. At the same time, there are likely to be 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 201 

trees which are growing indifferently and not bearing well. 
These latter are in need of fertilization. It is, therefore, 
a good plan to go through the orchard and tag such trees 
in the summer so that they may be manured or fertilized 
the following spring according to their individual needs. 

The common method of applying commercial fertilizer 
is simply to scatter it broadcast under the trees from two 
weeks to a month before bloom, care being taken not to 
get it too close to the trunk. Application should extend 
well out beyond the spread of the branches in order to 
conform more closely with the usual distribution of the 
feeding roots. Heaviest application should be made over 
the area covered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. 
Fertilizer may be left on the surface to be carried down by 
the rain or it may be harrowed or lightly plowed into the 
soil. Barnyard manure may be applied at almost any 
time, although applications late in the growing season are 
likely to over-stimulate wood growth. Winter dressings 
are most common. 

With nitrate of soda good results have been secured by 
dividing the amounts to be applied into two parts, making 
the first application about a month in advance of the bloom 
and the second about a month after the fruit has set. 
Favorable responses have been obtained from second ap- 
plications as late as July. The rate of the second appli- 
cation may vary, according to the size of the crop which 
the tree is carrying, heavier application being profitable in 
full crop years. The double application of nitrate of 
soda is credited with a tendency toward steadying and 
maintaining annual yield. In most regions this fertilizer 
is scattered broadcast in dry form, largely on the area cov- 



202 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. In a few 
regions where spring rains are infrequent, liquid applica- 
tions have proved advisable. 

PEUNING WITH REFERENCE TO FERTILIZING 

In connection with fertilizer studies, it has been found 
that efforts toward building up the soil and improving 
fruitfulness should be accompanied by regular and moder- 
ate pruning throughout the entire tree. Excessive head- 
ing back or heavy thinning of branches should be avoided 
unless the trees have entered such a decline as to necessi- 
tate the encouraging of heavy wood growth. 

FERTILIZER TESTS 

It is concluded from the foregoing discussion that soil 
fertility is of utmost importance and should be carefully 
maintained. Careful orchard management and the use of 
commercial fertilizer when necessary should forestall the 
depletion of plant-food. It has been emphasized that the 
critical factor in soil fertility of leading apple regions is 
available nitrogen supply. In regions in which yields are 
low and trees show pale foliage and lack of vigor, it is 
highly probable that the application of nitrogen fertilizer 
will be profitable. It is simple to conduct a test with a 
few trees and the results are quickly apparent. In many 
instances the increased yields will cover the added cost of 
the fertilizer many times over. It is anticipated that 
nitrogen fertilizer will become more and more popular 
among commercial apple-growers. 

A good orchard test is suggested by Stewart, although 
most commercial growers hesitate to go to the trouble of 
making it. The importance of testing fertilizers is appar- 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 203 

ent when one realizes tlie marked difference in results ob- 
tained in separate experimental orchards. It is wise to 
try fertilizing on a small scale before assuming any large 
financial risks, 

" This test should be located in a typical section of the 
orchard and include not less than six average trees of the 
same variety and age in each plot. It is also best to have 
the trees in double rows whenever possible and the plots by 
a single row left unfertilized. All trees should be labeled 
and carefully measured at a fixed point on the trunk, and 
the applications and exact records of both yield and growth 
should be maintained for at least three years. Good in- 
dications of an orchard's needs may often be obtained in 
much less time, but at least this period should be allowed. 

(Rates are stated for each mature tree in bearing.) 

1. Check (unfertilized). 

2. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs. 

3. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid phosphate (16 per cent P2 O5), 
8 lbs. 

4. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.; potash (50 per cent. K2O), 
2 lbs. 

5. Check. 

6. Acid phosphate, 8 lbs. ; potash, 2 lbs. 

7. Nitrate, 5 lbs. ; acid phosphate, 8 lbs. ; potash 2 lbs. 

8. Manure, 400 lbs. 

9. Check. 

" Other carriers, such as ammonium sulphate or dried 
blood, may be used for the nitrogen; and bone meal or 
possibly ' floats ' may be used for the phosphorus. The 
present materials are likely to be best in the absence of 
cultivation, however, and they are also quicker in their 
action as a rule." 



204 The Commercial Apple Industry 

GENERAL SUMMARY AND SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS 

(1). Cost production studies emphasize the importance 
of high yields. Judicious fertilization is a direct method 
of increasing yields. 

(2). Nitrogen is the limiting element of plant-food in 
most orchards. It can be supplied best in one of the 
following ways : 

(a) Barnyard manure, 8 to 10 tons to the acre an- 
nually. 

(b) Nitrate of soda, applied two to four weeks be- 
fore bloom; 3 to 5 pounds to a mature tree 
under western conditions; 4 to 8 pounds to a 
tree under eastern and middle western condi- 
tions. Amount varies with age, size and vigor 
of tree. 

(c) Growing of such leguminous shade- and cover- 
crops as alfalfa, clover or vetch. 

(3). Nitrogen tends somewhat to increase the size of 
the fruit, particularly on weak trees. It increases the 
number of fruits more noticeably. It may reduce color 
by checking maturity. 

(4). Phosphorus and potash applied in conjunction 
with nitrogen have given generally better results than 
nitrogen alone. This has not been definitely established 
under western and some eastern conditions. 

(5). Potash may improve color to slight degree. 

(6). The application of about 6 to 8 pounds of nitrate 
of soda ; 7 to 9 pounds of acid phosphate and from 2 to 3 
pounds of potash to a mature tree may be considered 
full treatment for soils generally depleted in fertility. 
Local tests should be made before extensive application of 



Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 205 

commercial fertilizer is made, since conditions vary exceed- 
ingly in different orchards. 

(7). Two to four weeks before bloom is the time rec- 
ommended for applying nitrate of soda. Other fertilizers 
may be applied at the same time. Method of application 
is by broadcasting fertilizer principally on the area under 
the outer two-thirds of bearing surface of tree. 

(8). Over-application of commercial fertilizers is to 
be avoided. Unfruitfulness is not always due to depleted 
soil fertility. Tests in fertilization should be conducted to 
determine needs. 

(9). Barnyard manure is an excellent fertilizer for 
apple orchards, particularly for young trees when rapid 
wood growth is desired; also for old trees which need 
stimulation to produce normal annual growth. 

(10). Leguminous cover-crops are very important in 
maintaining humus and nitrogen supply, and very often 
obviate the necessity of applying commercial fertilizer. 

(11). Some old orchards, particularly in western New 
York, apparently do not respond to commercial fertilizers 
but this does not mean that commercial fertilizers are not 
valuable under most conditions. 



CHAPTER X 



m 



DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE AND 
THEIR CONTROL 

In recent years much attention has been given to the 
study of insects and diseases attacking the different fruits. 
It is impracticable here to describe all of the pests which 
are found on the apple and for fuller accounts the reader 
is referred to the " ]\[anual of Fruit Insects " by Slinger- 
land and Crosby and " Manual of Fruit Diseases " by 
Hesler and Whetzel. 

IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF THE APPLE 

The codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). (See Plate 

XL) 

This insect, of European origin, is widely disseminated, 
being present in practically all of the important apple 
regions of the world. In the United States it is recognized 
as tl^e most serious insect enemy of the apple and is respon- 
sible yearly for a great loss of fruit. The codlin-moth, 
more commonly known as the " apple worm," feeds within 
the fruit, causing the so-called " wormy apple." In the 
early part of the season much of the wormy fruit falls 
to the ground, but the fruit attacked later is not so likely 
to drop. In regions in which this pest is abundant, many 
of the apples as they near maturity are frequently 
" stung." This refers to the small shallow excavations 

206 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 207 

through the skin made by the worms before they succumb 
to the poison. 

The seriousness of this insect is somewhat variable from 
season to season and in different fruit-growing districts. 
In the eastern states the eodlin-moth can be controlled by 
one to three thorough spray applications. In the Middle 
West and in the arid fruit-gTowing regions of the West, 
the insect is more difficult to control, often requiring six 
to seven sprays. It thrives especially under the warai 
dry climatic conditions of the West, whereas its develop- 
ment in the East is retarded by the occurrence of rains and 
periods of cool weather. The number of broods is in- 
fluenced by weather conditions as indicated by the fact 
that there are four broods in the Pecos Valley of New 
Mexico while in Maine there is practically but one, the 
second brood being very small. 

The codlin-moth passes the winter in the worm or 
larval stage, within a small silken cocoon which is nor- 
mally spun beneath the loose bark of the trunk. By the 
time the apples are in bloom, many of the worms have 
changed to the pupal state, after which they further trans- 
form and issue as moths. The eggs are deposited on the 
leaves and sometimes on the fruit itself. The worms 
hatch usually in six to ten days, depending on the weather, 
and soon eat their way into the fruit if it is not properly 
protected by poison. 

Before proper control measures can be applied, it is 
essential to know the life history of the codlin-moth. It 
is important to have information on the number of broods 
and the time when each brood is hatching in maximum 
numbers. It will, therefore, be readily appreciated that 
no one spraying schedule will be applicable in all fruit- 



208 77/fi Commercial Apple Industry 



1 



growing districts, but instead a spraying scheme that will 
meet local conditions slionld be adopted. 

The following suggestion will be helpful in controlling 
the codlin-moth: (1) Arsenate of lead powder should belj 
used, 2 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons of water or" 
fungicide. (2) The importance of thorough spraying for 
the calyx treatment can not be too strongly emphasized. 
This application may be started when 85 to 90 per cent of 
the blossoms have dropped and must be completed before 
the calyces have closed. (See Plate XI.) The calyx cups 
should be literally drenched to insure filling each one with 
the poison. The spray should be applied with nozzles 
throwing a coarse spray under a pressure of 200 to 225 , 
pounds. The upper parts of the trees should be sprayed 
from a tower. (3) In regions in which the codlin-moth is 
serious, every effort should be made to reduce the first brood 
as much as possible. If necessary, three cover sprays 
should be made for this brood: (a) Just before the worms 
begin to hatch (three to four weeks after the calyx spray) ; 
(b) as the worms are hatching in large numbers (ten to 
twelve days after a) ; (c) as the late hatching first-brood 
worms are appearing (ten to twelve days after b). 

If the first brood is not practically eradicated, no sub- 
sequent spraying will eliminate wormy and " stung " fruit. 
In order to catch the first-brood worms that have escaped 
being poisoned, it would be well either to band the trees 
or to employ the codlin-moth trap. A large proportion 
of the first-brood worms transform in a few weeks to moths, 
the females of which are capable of laying as many as 300 
second-brood eggs. From this the fruit-grower will realize 
the importance of killing as many first-brood worms as 
possible. In spite of the above precautions, however, 




Plate XII. — San Jose scale: (a) natural size; (b) enlarged; 
(c) appearance of this pest in the apple. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 209 

some worms will escape both the poison and the mechanical 
means of capture and it will, therefore, be necessary to 
spraj for the later broods. 

The following spray schedules are suggested : 

Schedule I (One spray). (1) Calyx spray. 
Schedule II (Two sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 
Schedule III (Three sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 

(3) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 
Schedule IV (Five sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 

(3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1 

(4) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 

(5) 12 to 14 weeks after 1 
Schedule V (Six sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 

(3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1 

(4) 6 to 7 weeks after 1 

(5) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 

(6) 12 to 14 weeks after 1 

Maine to Connecticut: Frequently schedule I will suf- 
fice, but if not schedules II or III should be em- 
ployed. 

New York to Virginia: In some fruit districts within 
these states schedule I will give satisfactory commer- 
cial control of the codlin-moth. Where it is more 
abundant, schedules II or III will be necessary. 

Ohio to Michigan: Usually schedule III will give satis- 
factory control. 



210 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Illinois to Arkansas: There is considerable variation 
in the relative infestation of the codlin-moth in these 
states. In some frnit districts schedule III will suf- 
fice, while in others schedules IV or V should be 
employed. 

Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah: The severity of 
the codlin-moth in these states varies to a considerable 
degree and the best spray schedule for each fruit- 
growing district will depend on the local conditions. 
In many of these districts, schedule V should be em- 
ployed, supplemented by banding or the codlin-moth 
trap. 

Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California: In many of the 
fruit-growing valleys in these states the codlin-moth is 
a pest of first rank, requiring for best control schedule 
V together with banding and the use of the codlin- 
moth trap. 

San Jose .scale (Aspidiotus perniciosits) . (See Plate 
XII.) 

The San Jose scale is one of the most common and inju- 
rious apple pests. It is widely distributed throughout 
practically every commercial apple region. The mature 
scale is gray in color, circular, and about the size of a pin- 
head. A nipple-like protuberance in the center distin- 
guishes it from other scales of similar appearance. The 
scale is merely an excretion for protection ; the louse is 
bright lemon in color and when crushed emits a percepti- 
ble juice. 

Annual spraying with lime-sulfur (30°-33° Baume) 
1 to 8 is recognized as proper treatment. It is desirable 
to delay the application until early spring, at a time when 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 311 

there will be the greatest hold-over effect against young 
scale. This occurs just as buds are swelling. For badly 
crusted infestation of scale, crude petroleum oils are ef- 
fective. As a rule, San Jose scale is now well controlled 
by spraying. Control measures are directed particularly 
to protect the fruit from infestation. 

Oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). (See Plate 
XIII.) 

The oyster-shell is another common scale insect which is 
not as serious, however, as the San Jose. The shape is 
distinctive and resembles very closely a long narrow oyster- 
shell. It is about 1/8 vach. long, brown in color, although 
sometimes grayish. Oyster-shell scale is not so widely dis- 
tributed as San Jose scale nor is it usually a menace in 
regions where the latter is serious. It seems to prefer a 
higher altitude. 

The dormant lime-sulfur spray is not as effective in the 
control of oyster-shell as of San Jose scale, yet in most 
instances it seoms to control both insects. Two or three 
weeks after the blooming period, the old oyster-shell scales 
begin to loosen and the yovnig lice start to crawl about. 
Application of distillate oils, kerosene emulsion, or lime- 
sulfur (1 to 35) is usually effective at this time. Nico- 
tine sprays, 1 to 200, are also effective although somewhat 
more expensive. 

Apple aphids. 

Four well-knowTi species of plant-lice affect the apple. 
Two of these, the oat aphis and the green aphis are green- 
ish in color and feed chiefly on the foliage, causing it to 
curl. The third species is commonly called the rosy apple 



212 The Commercial Apple Industry 

aphis {Aphis sorbi) because of its pinkish to purplish color. 
This louse is a more serious pest than the others since it 
not only attacks the foliage, but also causes severe damage 
to the young apples. (See Plate XV.) These injured 
fruits, known sometimes as " aphis apples," are frequently 
much dwarfed and distorted in shape and have no com- 
mercial value. The fourth species is the woolly aphis 
(Schizoneura lamgera), easily recognized by its whitish, 
cotton-like appearance, particularly when in colonies. 
This species feeds chiefly on the twigs, axils of the leaves, 
the trunk, especially where the outer bark has been in- 
jured, and the roots. (See Plate XIV.) 

The life history of plant-lice is somewhat complicated 
and worthy of brief mention. The oat aphis and rosy 
aphis migrate to other host plants, in the summer, but 
return in the fall to deposit their eggs on the apple twigs. 
The green apple aphis breeds on the apple during the 
entire season as does also woolly apple aphis, although the 
latter has an alternate host plant in the elm. 

The control of plant-lice is difficult, but by careful and 
timely spraying satisfactory results can be obtained. The 
oat, green and rosy aphids hatch in the spring about the 
time the green tips of the foliage appear. The lice con- 
gregate upon these tips and soon commence to feed. 

It is in this short period that the fruit-grower has the 
best chances of effecting control by thorough spraying with 
a contact insecticide, as nicotine sulfate (40 per cent) at 
the rate of 1 to 1066 (% pint to 50 gallons of water to 
which has been added 2 to 3 pounds of soap). If it is 
desired to spray for the San Jose scale, it may be done at 
this time, thus giving the tree the so-called " delayed dor- 
mant " treatment for the San Jose scale and apple aphids. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 213 



The best spray combination for this treatment is standard 
lime-sulfur solution 1 to 8 plus 40 per cent nicotine sulfate 
1 to 1066 (% pint to 50 gallons). The soap should not 
be used when lime-sulfur is employed as they are not com- 
patible. 

The above-ground colonies of the woolly apple aphis 
may best be treated in the summer by a drenching spray 
of 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The nicotine spray 
does not penetrate the woolly covering of these lice as well 
as the oil spray, otherwise the nicotine solution might be 
used. As yet, no satisfactory method of combating the 
woolly aphis on the roots has been found, but growing trees 
on resistant stock, as the N'orthern Spy, is desirable in 
regions in which this pest is troublesome. In spraying all 
plant-lice it is important to remember that these are suck- 
ing insects. 

Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). 

The mature insect is a snout- 
beetle which punctures the 
young fruit in the early stages 
and causes misshapen fruit. 
Codlin-moth sprays serve to 
check plum curculio although 
control may not be entirely ef- 
fective. Infestation is favored 
when orchards are in sod or 
grown up to weeds. Where 

this pest is prevalent, an ar- ^ „ * , , • 

• 11 111 11 1 , Fig. 3. — Apple showing 

Senical should be added to the the egg and feeding punc- 

pink spray application. (See tures of the plum curculio 

i,. Q \ ^^ ^^'^ ^^ *"^ distorted 

xlg. o.) shape of the fruit attacked. 




214 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Apple red hugs. 

Red bugs {H eterocordylus malinus and Lygidea men- 
dax) have come into prominence chiefly in ISTew York state. 
They do not seem to have spread to the Middle or Far 
West, although they are more prevalent in Connecticut and 
on up through jSTew England into ISTova Scotia. These 
insects puncture the apples early in the season, causing 
them to drop before maturity or to be misshapen and un- 
dersized. Nicotine sulfate, 1 to 800, combined with the 
pink spray for the scab has given best results. A repe- 
tition of the nicotine application with the calyx spray 
may be necessary. 

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma americana). 

The ordinary spray program including lead arsenate 
usually controls the tent-caterpillar and rarely is it a 
serious pest. The nests may be destroyed with torches and 
the egg-masses may be detached and removed while the 
trees are leafless. (See Plate XV.) 

Round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida). 

This insect may be particularly injurious to young apple 
trees and even matured ones. The larvae attack the trees 
near the base and feed for the first season under the bark, 
later tunneling deeper into the wood during the second and 
third years. In infested orchards, trees should be wormed 
annually with a knife and wire. Painting the trunks with 
pure white lead and oil from a few inches below the ground 
to a foot above may serve as a repellent and reduce egg 
deposition by the adult beetle. Egg deposition begins in 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 215 

May and June and is continued until August or Sep- 
tember. (See Plate XIII.) 

Cutworms. 

Cutworms are sometimes injurious, particularly in 
young orchards planted near timber. The worms work 
chiefly at night, feeding on the buds and tender foliage. 
During the day they may be found in the soil at a depth 
of about an inch. A poison bran mash deposited near the 
trunk of the trees acts as a control measure. 

Bud-moth {Tmetocera ocellana). 

In well-sprayed orchards, the bud-moth is not as a rule 
injurious. The caterpillars of this insect pass the winter 
in little cases near the buds and when growth starts in 
the spring they feed within the small leaves, folding them 
together with silken threads. Late broods attack the ap- 
ples by burrowing into the flesh. Arsenate of lead, 2 
pounds paste to 50, in the scab spray is usually effective 
against this insect, although an earlier arsenical spray may 
be necessary. 

The fruit-tree leaf -roller (Archips argyrospila) . 

This insect is especially injurious in New York, Mis- 
souri and Colorado, often stripping fruit-trees and ruining 
many of the young fruits. The most efficient method of 
control is to destroy the eggs early in the spring, using 
miscible oil, 1 part to 19 parts of water; or a 10 per cent 
kerosene emulsion may be used. Arsenical sprays are 
necessary to kill the insects, 6 pounds arsenate of lead in 
100 gallons of water, making the first application as soon 



216 The Commercial Apple Industry 

as the buds begin to burst, and the second when the blos- 
som buds in the cluster begin to separate. (See Plates 
XI, XIII.) 

IMPORTANT APPLE DISEASES 

Apple-scab (Venturia pomi). 

The scab is probably the most widely distributed and 
most destructive apple disease. It thrives in cool moist 
climates and is particularly injurious in western ]^ew 
York, iSTew England and Michigan. Occasionally it 
causes heavy losses in cool rainy seasons in Illinois and 
other middle western regions. The Hood Eiver and 
Eogue River valleys, Oregon, are the only western apple 
regions which have suifered materially from scab. The 
fact that severe scab attacks are intermittent and depend 
largely on the season is likely to cause growers to become 
careless and an unexpected scab year very often proves 
disastrous. ' (See Plate XVI.) 

The disease is evidenced by brown or grayish spots on 
fruit and leaves. Badly attacked apples may be dwarfed 
and very often crack open. The disease is spread by 
means of spores and lives over the winter on fallen leaves. 

Lime-sulfur 1 to 35, in combination with lead or nico- 
tine if desired, is effective against scab. Applications 
should be made (1) in the pink just before the blossoms 
open; (2) in the calyx; and (3) two to three weeks later. 
The first two sprays are the most important, since the fun- 
gus becomes active with the starting of growth in the 
spring. Late applications of lime-sulfur are sometimes 
necessary in bad seasons. While a three-spray program 
usually sufiices, it does not always serve in seasons when 



I 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 9^17 

spore development is particularly favorable. Only those 
growers who make two and even three late sprays are able 
to produce reasonably clean fruit under such conditions. 

Apple-blotch {Phyllosticta solitaria). 

This is essentially a middle western apple disease, being 
particularly injurious in southern Illinois and Indiana, 
in the Ozarks, southern Kansas and occasionally in the 
Missouri River region about St. Joseph. Most susceptible 
varieties in these states are Missouri Pippin, Northwest 
Greening and Ben Davis. 

The disease attacks the fruit, leaves and twigs, wintering 
over in twig cankers. Injury to the fruit is most serious 
and appears in the form of hard roughened brown spots, 
irregular in shape and sometimes sunken. Three-cornered 
cracks in the fruit are characteristic of the disease. 

Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50) is considered most effective 
against apple-blotch, and lime-sulfur (1-35) in a lesser 
degree. The latter with the calyx spray and three Bor- 
deaux sprays at intervals of about three weeks, begin- 
ning two to three weeks after the petals fall, is recom- 
mended as an effective program against severe apple- 
blotch. The first Bordeaux spray is most important. 

Sooty-blotch and fly-speck (Leptothyrium pomi). 

This disease does not penetrate the skin, but detracts 
greatly from the appearance of the fruit. It appears in 
two manifestations, the former in large sooty blotches and 
the latter as minute black spots on the skin of the apple. 
These diseases are usually controlled by the regular sum- 
mer fungicides. (See Plate XVI.) 



218 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Cedar-rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginiance) . 

In some regions, particularly in the Virginias, the cedar- 
rust has become a serious menace. It appears on the apple 
in bright yellow spots as large as l/o to % inch in 
diameter. In the yellow area are small black specks or 
pustules. The foliage is similarly affected and late in 
the season blisters or cushions are found on the under- 
side of the leaves. The cutting down of all cedar trees 
within a radius of at least a mile is the principal correc- 
tive measure. 

Bitter-rot {Glomerella rufomaculans) . 

Bitter-rot is very serious in certain commercial apple 
regions in the South, particularly in the Piedmont district 
of Virginia and in parts of the Ozarks. The fungus 
works in the tissue of the apple, causing first small light 
brown spots just beneath the skin of the apples. These 
spots may increase rapidly in size, attaining a diameter of 
an inch or more, and are usually sunken. Occasionally 
the apple assumes a peppered appearance and with yellow 
varieties as the Newtown, the margins of the spots may be- 
come purple or reddish in color. (See Plate XVI.) 

The disease is spread by spores, transmitted by rain 
drops, insects or birds. It may appear any time between 
the middle of June and the middle of September, being 
favored by warm moist seasons. The Yellow JSTewtown or 
Albemarle Pippin is very susceptible and Ben Davis, 
Gano, Grimes and Jonathan more or less so. 

Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) applied from June 15 to 
July 1, July 15 to 20 and August 1 to 5 is generally con- 
sidered the best control program. The disease winters 



|i 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 219 

over on mummied fniit and in cankers in the bark. 
These sources of infection should be removed when the 
disease is bad. 

Blister-canker {Nummularia discreta). 

This canker, sometimes spoken of as the Illinois blister- 
canker, is the most destructive apple disease in the Middle 
West. It is particularly prevalent in the Illinois, Ozark 
and Missouri River regions where it has caused heavy loss 
in trees. The fungus gains entrance strictly through 
wounds in the roots or branches. The initial cankers 
produced by the disease vary in size from 2 to 18 inches 
in length and from l^ to 6 inches in width. Their ap- 
pearance very often resembles that of cankers produced 
by winter-injury, sun-scald, blight or collar-rot, except 
that blister-canker affects not only the bark, but also the 
wood. The bark becomes shrunken and assumes a darker 
color and the cankers increase in size as long as the branch 
remains alive. The disease is spread by means of spores 
and infected wood. 

Unfortunately, the most important varieties of the Mid- 
dle West are the most susceptible to this disease, namely 
Ben Davis and Gano. The Delicious, though not widely 
grown in these regions, is also susceptible. Oldenburg, 
Wealthy, Winesap and Jonathan are more resistant. 
Whole trees often appear to die in a single season although 
as a matter of fact the infection has probably been present 
for several seasons, but has been invisible from the outside. 
The disease makes rapid progress in drought years. 

Treatment must be preventive rather than curative. 
Once infected, a tree can be saved only by the removal of 
the infected wood. Fortunately, vigorous well-cared-for 



230 The Commercial Apple Industry 

trees are very much less susceptible to the disease than 
slow-growing neglected individuals. As stated above, in- 
fection always enters through wounds and for this reason 
all pruning and other wounds should be disinfected and 
covered. White lead and oil or liquid asphaltum are rec- 
ommended as suitable coverings for wounds. A mixture 
of two-thirds coal-tar and one-third creosote serves not only 
as a covering, but also as a disinfectant. Cheap grades of 
these materials are adequate. 

Heavy pruning encourages rather than checks the 
disease and for this reason should be avoided in regions 
where blister-canker is serious. Preventive measures may 
be summed up as follows: (1) Avoid heavy pruning; 
(2) disinfect and paint all wounds; (3) remove all infec- 
tions from diseased trees; (4) select resistant varieties; 
(5) keep trees vigorous. 

Collar-rot. 

The seriousness of collar-rot has become apparent in 
many commercial apple orchards and the cause of this 
injury has been the subject of considerable study. Cer- 
tain varieties such as Grimes, the trunk wood of which 
does not harden fully for the winter and which for that 
reason is more subject to injuries from alternate freezing 
and thawing, seem more susceptible to collar-rot than 
others. Collar-rot on Grimes is also sometimes attributed 
to fire-blight. The connection of certain fungi have been 
associated with collar-rot injury, but at the present time 
there is no authentic publication which describes the iso- 
lation of any particular fungus responsible for the injury 
for which specified treatment is recommended. Trees in 






Plate XITI. — Insect enemies of the apple. ( 1 ) The 
fruit-tree leaf-roller egg mass from which the young cater- 
pillars have hatched; (2) The rounded-headed apple-tree 
iDorer in its tunnel at the base of a young apple tree; (3) 
The oyster-shell scale: (left) scale turned over to show 
eggs; (middle) mature scale; (right) young scale. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 221 

low wet ground or near irrigation ditches are sometimes 
susceptible to collar-rot. 

In working about trees, care should be taken not to 
scrape the bark or cause wounds at or about the collar. 
Such wounds may permit the entrance of either sapro- 
phytic or parasitic fungi. 

Observations have been made of the successful removal 
of infected or rotted tissues after which bridge-grafting 
or the planting and grafting in of young trees about the 
base of the trees has resulted in the saving of many collar- 
rotted trees. The practice, while recommended for iso- 
lated cases, is hardly advisable on a large scale. The 
process is expensive and not always successful. 

Fire-blight (Bacillus amylovorus). 

Fire-blight or pear-blight is a bacterial disease which 
affects both apples and pears and, while less serious on 
apples, it is responsible for heavy loss in apple regions. 
The disease is caused by microscopic bacteria working just 
underneath the bark in growing tissues of the trees. 

The presence of blight is generally evidenced during the 
growing season by a wilting of the leaves and branches 
above infected parts. The disease winters in hold-over 
cankers which at the beginning of spring growth exude 
drops of infected gum. Insects are attracted to the sweet- 
ened gum and very often carry the germs with them from 
flower to flower during the period of pollination. Bees 
are well-known carriers of the disease and aphids very 
often spread infection through feeding punctures. The 
first sign of blight in the spring is usually apparent when 
the infected blossom-spurs begin to wither and die, result- 



222 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ing in what is known as twig-blight. Confusion very 
often results from the use of such terms as twig-blight, 
blossom-blight and trunk-blight. In reality they are syn- 
onymous, being merely different names to designate the 
part of the tree infected. 

^ Fire-blight is more or less prevalent in all apple regions, 
but has been particularly serious in the Pacific Northwest 
on account of the presence there of susceptible varieties. 
The Esopus (Spitzenburg) is more subject to blight than 
any other leading commercial variety. Spitzenburg or- 
chards in the Yakima Valley have suffered severely in bad 
blight years. On the other hand, the heavy Spitzenburg 
plantings in the Hood River Valley, Oregon, have been 
very little injured. It is difficult to say just how far 
local climatic and soil conditions affect the spread of this 
disease, but unquestionably they are important factors. 

Preventive measures consist in checking wood growth. 
Blight works on tender succulent wood. Aphids unques- 
tionably are active in spreading this disease and their con- 
trol is important. 

After infection, the removal of the diseased portion is 
the only treatment. In the care of infected branches, the 
cut should be made about ten inches below the last visible 
sign of the blight. Wounds should be disinfected with 
cyanide of mercur}^ 1 to 500 ; tools should be disinfected 
with corrosive sublimate, 1 to 1,000. 

Apple rosette. 

The apple rosette is a physiological disease more or less 
prevalent in certain regions, particularly in the ]>forth- 
west. The disease is evidenced by a shortening of the 
terminal growth. Buds are crowded together by a failure 






Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 233 

of the branch to elongate. The result is a whorl of leaves 
at the tip and an absence of leaves along the side of the 
limb, which lends to the branch somewhat the appearance 
of a feather-duster. The exact cause of apple rosette is 
unknown. Abnormal soil condition or insufficient nour- 
ishment maj be responsible. In the Northwest the sow- 
ing of alfalfa in affected orchards has seemed to exert a 
beneficial effect. Good orchard practice, designed to pro- 
mote normal growth of the trees, seems the principal cor- 
rective measure. 

Baldwin-spot. 

This form of fruit-pitting is probably a physiological 
disease due to abnormal plant growth. More and more 
emphasis is being placed on good orchard management 
as a correction to such physiological affections. The 
maintenance of soil fertility and correct soil management 
are of particular importance. In the Pacific Northwest, 
regular irrigation with neither too much nor too little water 
is essential in controlling such diseases. 

An internal browning has been more or less prevalent 
in the Newtowns grown at Watsonville, California. Ex- 
periments in controlling this latter disease have been con- 
ducted for a number of years, but the disease is still puz- 
zling to horticulturists. 

ANIMAL PESTS OF THE APPLE 

Meadow mice. 

The field or meadow mouse has become a menace in 
many orchard regions, particularly in the South where the 
sod-mulch provides harbor. The mice attack the trees by 



234 The Commercial Apple Industry 

gnawing the bark from the trunk at or near the surface of 
the ground. Most of this injury is accomplished in the 
winter under cover of snow, although it may occur any 
time during the year. 

The runways of meadow mice are found entirely on 
the surface of the ground under weeds, leaves, brush and 
similar litter. Ordinarily, orchard sanitation, including 
the removal of trash and litter from about trees and fence 
rows, will suffice to control this pest, although poisoning 
may be necessary for bad infestation. 

Pine mice. 

The pine mouse is not dissimilar to the field mouse except 
that it is smaller and reddish-brown instead of the charac- 
teristic grayish -brown color of the field mouse. While the 
field mouse is more widely distributed throughout the 
country, the pine mouse is more injurious and more 
greatly feared in regions where it is prevalent. The Vir- 
ginias have suffered severe depredations in recent years. 
In one Virginia county alone, it is estimated that the loss 
from pine mice would amount to $300,000 annually. The 
pine mouse works almost entirely below the surface of the 
ground, feeding on the roots of the apple trees, girdling 
the trunk at or below the surface of the ground and in 
many instances tunneling along the roots and eating the 
bark for a distance of several feet from the trunk of the 
tree. While the field mouse usually works under cover 
of snow and is particularly bad in years when a heavy 
coating of snow remains on the ground for a considerable 
period during the winter, the pine mouse works beneath 
the surface of the ground and in all seasons of the year. 
Its activity in most cases is not apparent until the tree 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 225 

attacked begins to wilt and is beyond recovery. For bad 
infestation by pine mice, the orchardist must introduce 
and continue careful and thorough poisoning. 

Control of mice by poisoning. 

It is a good practice for the orchardist to carry a can of 
poison about with him and as he discovers holes or run- 
ways, to deposit a few of the grains of poisoned wheat in 
the openings, covering the latter with trash or leaves in 
order to make the trap more effective. Poisoning must 
be done systematically. Badly infested orchards should 
be first disced and cultivated in the spring. In poisoning 
it is well to send two or three men down a single tree row. 
By following a zigzag course and carefully looking for 
runways or holes, effective and systematic poisoning may 
be done. One man should easily cover from one to two 
acres in this manner in a day. A careful orchardist in 
an infested area should go over his orchard several times 
a year. 

Trees once girdled or partially so will soon die if 
exposed to the sun or drying action of the wind. For this 
reason the practice of poisoning should be accompanied 
by a search for injured trees. If the wounds can be 
covered by heaping fresh soil about the trunk, the tree 
may be saved and later a permanent recovery may be 
effected by bridge-grafting. 

A good poison formula for control of these mice is as 
follows : 

^ ounce strychnine 

1% pints water 

4 pounds sugar 

y2 peck wheat 



226 2'lie Commercial Apple Industry 

Boil strychnine, sugar and water together for ten or 
fifteen minutes, then add the wheat and boil a few minutes 
longer. Eemove the mixture from the fire and stir vigor- 
ously until the wheat has become thoroughly coated. If, 
on cooling, the mixture does not sugar, it may be necessary 
to boil a few minutes longer. It is highly important that 
the mixture be stirred vigorously in order that the poison 
may be distributed and the grains of wheat properly 
coated. The wheat will not ferment and may be kept 
indefinitely. It is claimed that chickens are not affected. 

SPRAYING 

Spraying as known to-day has come into general prac- 
tice only within the last fifteen or twenty years. The 
development of the power sprayer has made practicable 
the spraying of large commercial tracts and at the present 
time no other single operation defines so clearly the dis- 
tinction between commercial and non-commercial fruit- 
growing. It is now generally accepted that spraying is 
necessary to the production of strictly commercial apples. 

It is unquestionably true that insect pests and diseases 
are becoming more numerous and growers in new regions 
may not reasonably expect their orchards to be immune 
from the attacks of insects and diseases which thrive else- 
where under similar conditions. With the present means 
of communication and with increased number of host 
plants, isolation becomes less and less a factor. Fortun- 
ately, the increased energy of these attacks on apple trees 
has been accompanied almost simultaneously with the 
development of more effective spray control methods. No 
other orchard operation in the growing of commercial 
apples requires such thorough study as does spraying, and 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 227 

pays more on the investment, and yet no other practice is 
more likely to be slighted. Growers are now coming to 
look on spraying as a form of insurance and well thought 
out spray programs are being adopted in every region. 

While the last twenty years mark the period within 
which spraying has come into general use in commercial 
apple-growing, the history and development of spraying 
plants dates back much further. There are authentic 
records of trees having been " syringed " in Europe as 
early as 1763. The history of spraying indicates that 
this practice was probably not unknown much earlier than 
this date. In 1872 paris green was first recommended as 
an efficient spray material to be used against the canker- 
worm in southern Illinois. Eight years later probably 
the first experiment in the control of the codlin-moth with 
the use of an arsenical poison was conducted in Michigan 
by Cook who reported having successfully used London 
purple in spraying crab-apple trees. In 1892 and 1893 
arsenate of lead was introduced largely as an outgrowth 
of the gipsy moth control work. While gTeater emphasis 
was laid on insecticides in the early history of spraying, 
the development of suitable spray materials for fungous 
diseases was almost simultaneous. 

It is exceedingly difficult to describe exact methods of 
spraying. Thoroughness is all important. Leaking 
valves, leaking spray hose and faulty equipment should be 
avoided. Spray applications should be made promptly 
and at critical times, as delays are costly. For this reason 
the equipment should be thoroughly gone over well in 
advance of the season. 

It is impossible to fix a definite spray program which can 
be followed absolutely. Continued rain or other inclem- 



228 The Commercial Apple Industry 

encie^ may intervene. The seasonal development of pestsj 
and diseases varies greatly. The spray problem requires 
individual study with careful regard for general principle 
in control methods. 

Cost of spraying. 

The results of cost-production studies as applied to spray- 
ing lack stability since labor rates vary greatly in different 
regions and change from year to year even within a given 
district. The cost of spray material suffers similar 
changes. However, the amount of labor as expressed in 
man and horse hours does not fluctuate greatly and affords 
a reliable basis for comparison. The writers conducted 
detailed cost studies in hundreds of orchards in various 
regions of the United States and a number of important 
points regarding the amount of labor involved and material 
used were brought out. In the cost studies, a three-man 
and two-horse crew operating a power spray outfit was 
taken as a basis. Dusting and the spray-gun were not 
used. 

It was found that such a crew sprayed on the average 
of three to five acres of bearing trees in a ten-hour day. 
It was noticeable that the northwestern growers sprayed 
out more material in a day than those in other districts, 
the average of Yakima and Wenatchee being 1,750 gallons 
a day. The same size crew operating in western I^ew 
York averaged only 1,100 gallons a day. This disparage- 
ment in favor of the efficiency of the western spray crew 
may be explained partly by the fact that the presence of 
water in irrigating ditches greatly facilitates the reload- 
ing of spray tanks and in this way increases the efficiency 
of the spray crew. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control • 229 



Table XI 

Showing Kate and Cost of Applying Spray Materials in Six 
OF the Leading Apple Kegions 







C3 




> 


d 
o 

a 


o 




a 


a 


o 




>H 


;>^ 




a 


3 


j3 
C3 


o 
o 


to 

0) 


^ 




^ 


^ 


-O 


w 


^ 




Acres a day . . . 


3.4 


4.24 


3.57 


5.47 


3.8 


4.6 


Gallons a day. . 


1766 


1743 


1253 


1205 


1904 


1150 


Galtons an acre. 


515 


411 


379 


223 


501 


250 


Gallons a tree. . 


6.3 


5.3 


6.3 


3.1 


6.8 


7.0 


Average number 














sprays 


3.4 


4.98 


4.09 


5.65 


3.7 


3.5 


Cost of spraying 


$37.00 


$42.00 


$40.00 


$30.00 


$36.00 


$25.00 


Cost of labor . . 


20.00 


26.00 


23.00 


18.00 


22.00 


14.00 


Cost of materials 


17.00 


16.00 


17.00 


12.00 


14.00 


11.00 



The accompanying table shows the amount of spray 
materials used and the rate of application in different 
regions. These and other data are taken to show the 
approximate cost of spraying one acre of bearing orchards 
for an entire season in each of six important apple regions. 
In studying the amount used for a tree for each applica- 
tion, the size and variety of the tree should be considered. 
For example, the grower in Hood River, Oregon, applies 
on an average of only 3 gallons to a tree as compared with 
an average application of over 6 gallons to a tree elsewhere. 
The Hood River Newtown with its low head is not to be 
compared in size with a forty-year-old New York Baldwin 
tree and therefore does not require the amount of spray. 
As a matter of fact, if the New York grower would spray 
his Baldwin trees as thoroughly as the Wenatchee grower 
sprays his Winesap, he would probably use at least twice 



230 The Commercial Apple Industry 



Ji 



as much material instead of about the same amount of 7 
gallons a tree. 

The dormant lime-sulfur application is included in the 
averages of Table XI, but as a rule requires somewhat more 
labor and of course involves more exj)ensive spray material. 
Considering the best sprayed orchards, it becomes appar- 
ent that the spraying operations represent an annual out- 
lay of at least $40 a bearing acre if depreciation of spray 
outfit is to be included. 

Spray equipment. 

There is considerable variation in the type of spraying 
outfits. For the small grower, hand outfits such as bucket 
or barrel sprayers may be sufficient, but for the commercial 
grower the power spray is essential. At present the power 
sprayers operated by gasoline engines are in almost exclu- 
sive use, although traction and compressed air outfits have 
been employed with some success. 

Generally speaking, a good spray outfit is a most profit- 
able investment. For the operator of a moderate sized 
orchard, the common outfit is a three- or four-horse-power 
gasoline sprayer with a two- or three-cylinder pump, cap- 
able of delivering 6 to 9 gallons of spray material a minute 
under a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds. The 200-gallon 
tank is most popular. It pays to buy a good sprayer. 
Heavy repair bills and lack of efficiency very often make 
the cheap sprayer most expensive in the end. 

For the large commercial grower, the high power gas- 
oline outfit with four-cylinder pumps and four-cylinder 
automobile type engines from 10 to 12 horse-power are 
not uncommon. These large outfits are capable of deliv- 
ering as high as 15 gallons of spray material a minute 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 231 

under pressure of 200 to S60 pounds. The grower can 
profitably study the different makes of power sprayers 
before making a selection. Before buying he should insist 
on seeing a thorough orchard demonstration of the model 
in question. 

No other one new device since the power sprayer was 
invented has met with such general interest as the spray- 
gun, for which the fruit industry is indebted to John Hull 
of Gasport, Xew York. The idea has been developed by 
a number of manufacturers. The gun consists of a short 
metal rod attached to the end of a spray hose. The orig- 
inal spray-gun was constructed so as to deliver a maximum 
of 15 gallons of spray a minute. Under heavy pressure, 
a gi'eat cloud of spray could be sent out, reaching a height 
of 46 feet. Experiments have not actually determined 
the relative value of the spray-gTin as compared with the 
old rod and nozzle, but growers have not waited for pub- 
lished reports. The spray-gun was introduced to offset 
the effect of dusting and is now being used by hundreds of 
growers. Some criticism is voiced against the gun for the 
calyx spray in controlling codlin-worms. When used from 
a tower, this criticism is mitigated to a greater or less 
extent. Speed is the chief recommendation for the spray- 
gun. The operator usually stands on a tower and with a 
single gun sprays two rows from a steadily moving spray 
outfit. 

For apple orchards in full bearing, the spray tower is a 
necessary accessory if thorough work is to be performed. 
Planting schemes should provide sufficient space between 
mature trees to permit the use of a tower in reaching the 
topmost branches. Various tower designs are in use. 
Strong iron rods supporting a small square platform with 



232 The Commercial Apple Industry 

railing are suitable material. Wooden towers are more 
inexpensive. When trees are close together, a tower sup- 
porting a single wooden bar or " horse " which the tower- 
man may straddle is a more suitable form. 

Nearly every grower has a favorite type of nozzle and 
there are many different designs. In the main there are 
two broad classifications, the Vermorel or eddy-chamber 
nozzle and the Bordeaux type. With the former, the spray 
is introduced into an eddy chamber and leaves the artifice 
in a cone shape mist. With the Bordeaux nozzle, the 
spray leaves the nozzle with a direct force, but is deflected 
into a fan shape by striking an obtrusive bar or lip. Thdjj 
Bordeaux nozzle provides a more direct driving spray and 
is preferred by many growers for the calyx spray when it 
is desirable to drive the poison down into the calyx cups. 
For cover sprays, the eddy-chamber nozzle is more popular. 
In the first place it does not wear out so quickly. It also 
uses spray material more economically than the Bordeaux 
nozzle and' does not catch on the branches. While the 
Bordeaux nozzle will deliver 21/2 gallons to 3 gallons a 
minute under 200-pound pressure, the eddy-chamber deliv- 
ers from 11/2 to 2 gallons. The Bordeaux nozzle causing 
a driving, fan shaped spray is heartily indorsed by some 
for the calyx application. For thorough work it may be | 
more effective, although for an all-round nozzle the 
" Friend " type or disc nozzle is desirable. 

Hired sprayers. 

In some regions, particularly in the northwestern irri- 
gated sections, it is often customary to hire a spraying 
outfit by the day or hour. Thus one grower may do his 
own spraying and that of several neighbors. The small 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 233 

grower resorts to this practice when he feels that his acre- 
age is insufficient to warrant the purchase of a power outfit. 

In considering custom spraying, two decided disad- 
vantages weigh heavily against this practice. In the first 
place, the value of spraying and its relative cost may only 
be measured by its efficiency. jS^o matter how cheap the 
cost, careless spraying is expensive. To be efficient, a 
spray must be applied at the critical period. If one has 
to wait for a custom sprayer, very often the value of the 
spraying is partly lost. The second reason is that while 
figuring only labor and material costs the hired sprayer 
may be cheaper, it is considerably less efficient. On sixty- 
nine fruit-farms studied in the Yakima Valley, thirty- 
nine growers owned their own sprayers and thirty hired 
their spraying done. In every instance the custom sprayer 
applied on the average of one-third less material to a tree. 
It is quite likely that in every instance this was false 
economy. The hired outfit will not perform the careful 
work which a grower himself will do. 

It is not to be concluded from this discussion that the 
small orchardist is invariably justified in owning a power 
sprayer. It has been found that the average depreciation 
and upkeep of a power spray outfit amounts to practically 
25 per cent a year. Thus a $500 sprayer investment 
means an annual outlay of $125 in addition to labor and 
material. On a five-acre orchard, this cost alone would be 
$25 an acre. It is doubtful whether the orchardist with 
less than ten acres is justified in owning a power sprayer. 

Regional spraying notes. 

The northeastern states. — The commercial apple- 
growers in Michigan, New York and New England fear 



334 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the apple-scab more than any other disease. In l^ew 
York the infestation of the apple red bng is serious in some 
localities and in New England the gipsy and the brown- 
tail moths have caused considerable losses. The apple- 
scab is quite prevalent throughout New England as is also 
the apple-maggot. Scab is particularly feared by the 
growers of Mcintosh apples in this region. 

The middle Atlantic states. — The Piedmont grower of 
Virginia suffers heaviest loss in seasons favorable to the 
development of bitter-rot. The Yellow Newtown (Albe- 
marle Pippin) is particularly susceptible to this disease 
which may occur late in the season and very seriously 
injure the crop when nearly mature. Serious epidemics 
of apple-scab are uncommon, although this disease is more 
or less prevalent throughout the Piedmont district. In the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland region of Virginia, West Vir- 
ginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, the pine mouse has 
been a most destructive orchard pest in recent years. 
Cedar-rust has also been very destructive and has pre- 
cipitated a campaign for the eradication of cedar trees in 
the vicinity of orchard plantings. Root-rot is proving to 
be one of the most destructive of all orchard diseases in 
these four states and as yet there is no recognized means 
of control. 

The Middle West.— Throughout the Middle West the 
apple-blotch is the most serious disease affecting the fruit 
and the blister-canker, sometimes known as the Illinois 
blister-canker, is the most injurious to the trees, particu- 
larly those of the Ben Davis variety. Apple-scab is pre- 
valent in favorable years, while bitter-rot is often serious 
in the Ozarks, southern Illinois and southern Indiana. 

Western boxed-apple region. — The most serious pest in 




Plate XIV.— The Woolly Aphis. Upper, Ground colonies of 
the woolly aphis. Lower, Apple roots distorted and injured by 
the woolly aphis. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 335 

the western orchard section is unquestionably the codlin- 
moth. The dry arid climate in nearly all the irrigated 
sections seems particularly favorable to its development. 
The long hot seasons increase the number of broods and 
seem to stimulate the activities of this pest. Fprthermore, 
the close grading of the fruit emphasizes the loss from 
worm injury. Eastern growers are justified in feeling 
that they have worked out a satisfactory spray program 
against codlin-moth and are inclined to believe that the 
western grower is deficient in his spraying methods for con- 
trolling this insect. Yet in many instances growers on 
the western slope of Colorado and the Yakima Valley, 
Washington, have found it difficult to avoid excessive cod- 
lin-moth loss even after spraying much more thoroughly 
and frequently than is necessary under eastern conditions. 
Fire-blight epidemics have been more or less serious in 
the West and have been particularly injurious in the 
Yakima Valley, Washington and the Rogue Eiver Valley, 
Oregon. In the Rogue River and Hood River valleys, 
Oregon, the apple-scab has been serious in years when the 
climatic conditions were favorable to its development. 
However, elsewhere in the West fungous troubles are in 
the main inconspicuous. 

California. — The Watsonville apple-grower in the 
Pajaro Valley must devote considerable attention to the 
control of the tussock moth. The leaf-roller is also rather 
prevalent and the powdery-mildew causes more or less 
injury. 

DUSTING 

Dusting, as a substitute for the liquid spray method in 
controlling insects and disease, has been brought to the 
recent attention of fruit-growers by the extensive experi- 



236 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ments conducted in western New York in 1911-1913 by 
Blodgett of Cornell. These experiments have been con- 
tinued elsewhere in different parts of the United States 
by various state and federal investigators. The practice 
of dusting has been adopted with greater or less success by 
many commercial growers in different regions. Its status 
has not been definitely determined, but certain conclusions 
may be drawn from results thus far obtained. 

In the first place, dusting has certain inherent advant- 
ages over the use of liquid spray: (1) More trees may be 
covered in a given time and with less labor than with the 
liquid spray; (2) dusting is more convenient in rough 
hilly orchards; (3) considerable time is saved in loading 
the machine with material; (4) the elimination of water 
reduces very materially the weight of the spray material 
to be hauled through the orchard; (5) the equipment cost 
is much less than for liquid spraying machine. 

In comparing the cost of common dust materials, such 
as arsenate' of lead and superfine sulfur, with that of 
similar materials used in liquid sprays, it appears that the 
dusting method is more expensive, particularly if much 
dust is lost in the application in windy or unfavorable 
weather. In considering labor cost, dusting may be 
cheaper than spraying with liquids, and it is on this point 
that advocates for dusting lay particular stress. The 
spray-gun more recently developed has reduced this ad- 
vantage of the dusting method over the liquid spray. But 
certainly the grower may cover his trees at the critical 
period in less time and with less labor cost by dusting than 
with liquid spray applied with rods. 

A two-man crew operating a dusting machine can cover 
from three to four times as many trees as a three-man 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 237 

crew operating a liquid spray outfit with the old rods. It 
is estimated that fifteen-year old trees require on the 
average of about 1 to II/2 pounds of dust for a single 
application, while trees twenty to twenty-five years old 
require approximately 2 pounds of dust. The time and 
amount of material vary greatly with the conditions and 
methods of application. These data will convey in a gen- 
eral way the relative speed of the two systems. 
The follow^ing formulse are quite generally used : 

Formula I. Combination dust for chewing insects and 
fungous diseases: 

Arsenate of lead, powder . . .10 to 15 per cent. 
Sulfur, superfine 90 to 85 per cent. 

Formula 2. For insect infestations and light fungous 
attacks : 

Arsenate of lead 10 per cent. 

Sulfur 50 per cent. 

Hydrated lime or gypsum 40 per cent. 

Formula 3. 

Arsenate of lead, powder , . 10 to 15 per cent. 
Hydrated lime or gypsum . . 90 to 85 per cent. 

It is rather difficult to dogmatize on the efficiency of 
dusting. Some growers, after a more or less thorough trial, 
are convinced of its economy and efficiency. Other grow- 
ers have discarded their dusting machines. In western 
New York dusting has not become general. Improved 
dusting mixtures and better methods of application may 
result in greater popularity for this method, for it has 
certain time-saving advantages. However, at the present 



238 The Commercial Apple Industry 

time it has not been altogether successful in controlling 
bad scab infection, excessive codlin-moth, or apple-blotch,, 
the three most serious apple diseases and pests. It seemsJi 
possible that dusting may prove better adapted to regions 
where the codlin-moth is not particularly serious or scab 
infection critical. For hilly orchards or orchards where 
water supply is remote, or where liquid spraying is exceed- 
ingly diflScult, the use of dusting may be recommended as 
a substitute. 

The power duster is usually operated by a two- or 
three-horse-power gasoline engine. The dust mixture is 
fed into a.rapidly revolving fan by means of a hopper and 
a strong current of air forces the dust out through a dis- 
charge pipe. A single operator directs the cloud of dust 
by shifting the discharge pipe. 

INSECTICIDES 

In studying insect control, the first consideration should 
be given to the methods by which insects secure their food. 
Generally speaking, there are two classes of insects: (1) 
biting and chewing insects such as codlin-moth and tent- 
caterpillar; (2) sucking insects such as aphids and scale. 
When insects feed on such exposed parts as the buds or 
leaves, arsenicals or other stomach poisons are necessary. 
In the case of chewing insects which feed beneath the 
bark, such as borers, other control methods must be em- 
ployed. Sucking insects are best checked by the use of 
contact sprays such as lime-sulfur, nicotine, and kerosene 
emulsion. 

Following is a general classification of common insect- 
icides : 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 239 

( 1 ) Insecticides for biting insects — arsenate of lead, 
paris green, calcium arsenate and arsenite of zinc. 

(2) Insecticides for sucking insects — lime-sulfur, 
nicotine solution, miscible oils, so-called dry-lime-sulfur 
compounds. 

For biting insects. 

Arsenate of lead is the most widely used poison for chew- 
ing and biting insects. It is particularly effective against 
the codlin-moth. Both powdered and paste forms are in 
common use, the powder having come into recent popular- 
ity on account of convenience in handling. Of the two 
kinds of lead arsenate, one is known as ortho, triplumbic 
or neutral lead arsenate and the other as standard or 
diplumbic lead arsenate. The diplumbic or acid lead is 
now being employed almost to the exclusion of the ortho 
or triplumbic form, although the latter is sometimes recom- 
mended for more tender foliage or in regions where foliage 
is likely to be burned by arsenicals. Best brands of paste 
lead contain from 15 to 17 per cent of arsenic oxide, while 
powdered forms usually contain approximately double that 
amount, the 50 per cent water-content having been 
removed. Two pounds paste or 1 pound arsenate of lead to 
50 gallons of water are standard strengths. Before the 
lead is added to the spray-tank, it should be made into a 
thin paste by the addition of water or preferably reduced 
to a solution in 3 or 4 gallons of water. Particular atten- 
tion should be given to mixing the powdered forms so that 
the suspension will be complete. Strengths of less than 2 
pounds of paste lead wrsenate to 50 gallons of water have 
not as a rule given satisfaction. At present a number of 
experiments are being conducted in the Northwest in 



240 The Commercial Apple Industry 

which arsenate of lead is being used 3 and even 4 pounds 
paste to 50 gallons of water. Where the codlin-moth is 
becoming a more serious menace, it is thought that by 
increasing the dosage, quicker killing effects may be 
secured and the loss from later stings may be reduced. 

Paris green is an arsenical poison which has been largely 
superseded by arsenate of lead, the latter having proved 
more adhesive, more compatible with other spray materials 
and less likely to cause burning. Paris green is not widely 
used in any commercial apple region. 

Calcium arsenate is being tried out in many parts of 
the United States and, although more or less in an experi- 
mental state of development, has given some promise, par- 
ticularly when used on apples under eastern conditions 
where codlin-moth infestation is not serious. The pow- 
dered forms contain 42 to 45 per cent of arsenic-oxide and 
the paste forms 17 to 20 per cent. When employed alone 
in the Northwest, some burning resulted. The addition of 
paste lime at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds of stone lime to 50 
gallons of water is considered a wise precaution against 
burning. Combination of lime-sulfur, summer strength, 
with calcium arsenate has thus far proved satisfactory. 
Calcium arsenate has not been widely employed in any 
commercial apple region, although it is being tested by 
many growers at present. Commercial forms lack the 
smoothness and fineness which characterizes the well- 
known brands of arsenate. It is not improbable that the 
physical properties of commercial calcium arsenate can be 
greatly improved. Experiments have thus far given some 
promise. Complete results of thorough trial and demon- 
stration will be awaited with interest. Although it has 
not yet demonstrated the quick-killing properties of lead, 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 241 

calcmm arsenate is cheaper pound for pound than lead and 
this may cause its ultimate introduction in the East where 
codlin-moth infestation is not the menace which it is in 
most irrigated regions. Calcium arsenate is still in the 
experimental stage. 

Ar senile of zinc is a quick-acting poison which in pow- 
dered form contains about 40 per cent arsenic-oxide. It 
is used in tussock moth control in the Pajaro Valley or 
Watsonville district, California, but on account of its tend- 
ency to burn it has not been employed elsewhere. 

For sucking insects, contact sprays. 

Liquid lime-sulfur has become the standard dormant or 
winter spray for apples. It is a combination insecticide 
and fungicide chiefly valuable for its effectiveness against 
San Jose scale and certain other insects as well as against 
fungous diseases. It is to be preferred to any of the 
present forms of so-called dry lime-sulfur. For full win- 
ter strength, 1 to 8 is generally accepted as the proper rate 
of dilution. This rate applies to the concentrated com- 
mercial lime-sulfur testing 33° Baume. Weaker solu- 
tions should be diluted accordingly. The table of dilu- 
tion on the next page will serve as guide. 

For sunmaer sprays, particularly for apple-scab, a weak 
solution of lime-sulfur is widely employed alone or in com- 
bination with nicotine and arsenate of lead. The strength 
at which summer applications of lime-sulfur cause burning 
varies with the season and the climatic conditions. Lime- 
sulfur has been used 1 to 10 in summer without injurious 
effects to the fruit or foliage. Again a dilution of 1 to 30 
may cause foliage burning. It is generally accepted that 
1 to 35 for the pink spray and later summer application 



242 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Table XII 
Dilution Table for Concentrated Lime-Sulfur Solutions 







Number gallons concentrated lime-sulfur 




Specific 
Gravity. 


to make 50 gallons spray solution. 


Degrees 
Baume. 


Summer or 

foliage 

strength. 


Winter or dormant strength. 




San Josfi 
scale. . 


Blister 
mite. 


36 


1.330 


iy4 


5y2 


4% 


35 


1.318 


1% 


5% 


5 


34 


1.306 


1V2 


6 


5 


33 


1.295 


\V2 


6% 


5U 


32 


1.283 


iy2 


ey. 


5y2 


31 


1.272 


1V2 


6% 


5% 


30 


1.261 


1% 


7 


6 


29 


1.250 


1% 


7y4 


614 


28 


1.239 


1% 


7y2 


6y2 


27 


1.229 


2 


8 


6% 


26 


1.218 


2 


8y2 


7% 


25 


1.208 


2 


8% 


7y2 


24 


1.198 


2y, 


914 


8 


23 


1.188 


2y4 


9% 


sy* 


22 


1.179 


2% 


loy* 


8% 


21 


1.169 


2y2 


11 


9% 


20 


1.160 


2y2 


iiy; 


9% 



is a safe and effective dilution. Excessively hot days 
should be avoided in summer spraying with lime-sulfur. 
In the Middle West, Bordeaux mixture is very often pre- 
ferred to lime-sulfur for the late summer sprays on account 
of its great effectiveness against blotch and bitter-rot. 
Some feel also that Bordeaux is less likely to cause burning. 
Home-made lime-sulfur solution. — It has been demon- 
strated that the preparation at home of a lime-sulfur solu- 
tion is practicable and very often economical. When a 
grower has less than four or five acres of orchard, it is prob- 
ably advisable for him to buy the commercial lime-sulfur, 
since it is usually superior to the home-made ; furthermore, 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 243 

considerable difficulties attend the manufacture of lime- 
sulfur in small quantities. If the grower is operating a 
large orchard, or if several smaller growers can cooperate 
as is done in many instances, it is very often advisable for 
them to manufacture their own solution. The materials 
for making are : lime, use only fresh lump lime, free from 
foreign substances and containing at least 90 per cent cal- 
cium oxide and not over 5 per cent magnesium oxide; 
sulfur, either flowers of sulfur or commercial sulfur finely 
ground. Various appliances may be used for cooking lime- 
sulfur concentrates. A large iron kettle raised from the 
ground on loose stones, or kettles imbedded in masonry are 
suggested. When considerable amount of spray material 
is needed, a more elaborate plant will be practicable. 
Cooking with steam is the most satisfactory method and 
with a larger plant the installation of a boiler is advisable. 
A twelve-horse boiler will furnish sufficient steam for a 
cooker of 300 gallons capacity. Iron cooking vessels are 
usually preferable to wooden on account of danger of leak 
in the latter. The hydrometer is necessary for testing the 
density of the final solution. Table XII should be fol- 
lowed in making dilutions. 

Preparation of home-made lime-sulfur solution. — 

Formula 

Fresh stone lime 50 pounds 

Commercial ground sulfur 100 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Place the desired quantity of lime in the cooker or 
slaking-box, then add water (preferably hot, since hot 
water slakes the lime more quickly). Care should be 



344 The Commercial Apple Industry 

taken to use enough water to prevent too violent slaking 
or burning, although too much water is objectionable, 
since this will drown the lime. Mix the sulfur to a thin 
paste and add the lime, then the desired quantity of water. 
After the full amount of water has been added, the cook- 
ing-vat should be marked or a notched stick used to show 
the original amount of water. Keep adding hot water 
from time to time to replace that which has evaporated. 
The solution should not be allowed to boil down stronger 
than one-half gallon to each pound of sulfur, nor should 
there ever be much of an excess of water. The solution 
should be boiled for at least forty-five minutes but not 
longer than one hour. It is important that boiling should 
proceed vigorously and that the mixture should be stirred 
constantly. After the lime-sulfur solution has been made, 
it should be strained in order that the undissolved particles 
may be removed. Straining should be through an iron 
wire (never copper) 30 to 50 mesh to the inch. The solu- 
tion should be allowed to cool before being tested with a 
hydrometer. If the solution is left exposed, a film of 
oil should be poured over the surface to exclude the air. 
It is highly important that all home-made lime-sulfur be 
tested with the hydrometer, otherwise the grower is merely 
guessing as to the strength of the spray. The sediment 
obtained in the manufacture of home-made lime-sulfur will 
be useful in painting the trunks of the trees. 

Nicotine solution is recognized as a standard contact 
insecticide for summer spraying. It is particularly effect- 
ive against aphids and may be used without injury to the 
foliage. A solution of nicotine sulfate containing 40 per 
cent nicotine such as Black Leaf 40 is the common com- 
mercial form. Proper dilution is given at 1 to 800 and 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 345 

1 to 1,000. Soap should be added at the rate of 2 or 3 
pounds to 50 gallons to increase the spreading and adhesive 
qualities of the spray. Nicotine may be used in combina- 
tion with lead arsenate, lime-sulfur or both. 

Miscible oils. — " Miscible " or " soluble " oils have 
come into considerable use as dormant sprays, particularly 
in the West where they have been found a satisfactory 
treatment for badly encrusted San Jose scale. The misci- 
ble oils have a tendency to spread after they have been 
applied and for that reason are particularly effective 
against scale insects. Home-made emulsions are used to 
some extent in California where the crude oils can be pur- 
chased cheaply. The question of injury resulting from 
continued oil spraying is disputed. It is advisable to make 
dormant oil spray in the late winter rather than in the fall. 
If oil sprays can be applied in the spring just previous to 
the swelling of the buds, preferably on simny days, the 
danger of injuring the trees will be minimized. When 
hard water is being used for spraying, it is desirable to add 
1 to 2 pounds of soda to each spray tank. 

So-called dry lime-sulfur. — The active and killing 
ingredients of lime-sulfur determine the value of these 
sprays. The following table gives the relative cost of this 
liquid versus dry lime-sulfur compounds measured in 
terms of active sulfur. The comparison in this table is in 
favor of the liquid lime-sulfur. In lime-sulfur (dry), the 
active sulfur costs $18.90 for 100 pounds; in soda-sulfur 
$14.03 for 100 pounds, and liquid lime-sulfur only $8.03 
for 100 pounds. The inference is clear that lime-sulfur 
solution is a much more economical form than the so- 
called dry lime-sulfur or soda-sulfur. 



346 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Table XIII 

Dry Sulfur Preparation vs. Lime-Sulfur Solution 

Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment 
Station, University of California. (Berkeley), Nov. 1918. 



Material. 


Total 

active 

sulfur. 

(Approx.) 


Cost of 

100 lbs, 

active 

sulfur. 


Amount equiva- 
lent to 1 gallon 
lime-sulfur 
solution. 


Lime-sulfur solution (33 B.) 
Average retail price $11.26 
per barrel. 
Soda-sulfur 


26% 

57% 
55% 


$8.03 
$14.03 
$18.90 


1 gallon weighs 
10.78 lbs. 

4.9 " 


Average retail price $8.00 
per cwt. 
Lime-sulfur (dry) 


5.0 " 


Average retail price $10.40 
per cwt. 





Spreaders for the different insecticides. 

The use of spreaders in securing a more uniform coating 
of spray is attracting considerable interest among experi- 
menters and fruit-growers. Three socalled spreaders are 
more or less well known : 

(1) Glue — 1 to 2 ounces to 50 gallons. 

(2) Flour paste — 2 pounds flour reduced to paste, to 

50 gallons of water. 

(3) Soap — 2 pounds liquid soap to 50 gallons of 

water. Other soaps such as fish-oil, rosin or 
common laundry soap may be used at the same 
rate. . i 

The use of soap with nicotine solutions is generally > 
accepted as highly beneficial. Soap should not be used 
with lime-sulfur, however, but is compatible with arsenate 




Platk X\ .— i pper, The tent caterpillar, nest and young cater- 
pillars on wild cherry; frequently found in the apple. Lower, 
Kosy apple aphis and its effect on the foliage and fruit of the 
apple. 



Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 247 

of lead and is highly recommended in combination with 
Bordeaux. The other spreaders named, glue and flour 
paste, are being used with arsenicals, but their status has 
not yet been definitely determined. It is thought that 
they may increase the spreading tendencies and effect a 
more uniform coating of these arsenic stomach poisons. 

FUNGICIDES 

Lime-sulfur has been treated on the preceding pages, as 
it is both an insecticide and fungicide. 

Bordeaux mixture. — The standard formula for Bor- 
deaux mixture is as follows: 

Copper sulfate (bluestone) 4 pounds 

Fresh stone lime 4 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime separately with 
water. Bluestone may be conveniently dissolved by plac- 
ing it in a burlap sack and suspending the sack in the upper 
part of a barrel or other receptacle filled with water. 
Stock solutions of this material may be made by dissolving 
1 pound bluestone in 1 gallon of water and diluting to the 
required streng-th when ready for use. It is not advisable 
to make up in advance large amounts of this solution that 
cannot be used within a period of a few days. Nothing 
but wooden or earthen containers should be employed 
since copper sulfate (bluestone) reacts when brought in 
contact with metal ware of any kind. In slaking the lime, 
cover with just enough water to start slaking, then add 
water to prevent too rapid action and heating. Work the 
lime into a paste and dilute at the rate of 1 pound of lime 



248 The Commercial Apple Industry 

to 1 gallon of water for stock solution. When ready for 
use, 4 gallons of stock solution will represent 4 pounds of 
stone lime, sufficient for 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture 
spray. When the mixture of lime and bluestone is to be 
made, it is a wise precaution to pour the two solutions 
simultaneously into the third receptacle in order that they 
will mix freely while going into the spray-tank or third 
receptacle. A strainer should be used when filling the 
spray-tank. Bordeaux mixture is the standard fungicide 
for bitter-rot and for blotch in the Middle West, and is 
used double strength in the fall for anthracnose. 

Finely divided sulfur. — There are a number of finely 
divided sulfur compounds on the market known as atomic 
sulfur, " milled " sulfur and by similar trade names. 
Greater adhesion and greater spreading qualities are 
claimed for these compounds. They are used against the 
powdery-mildew in some of the orchard regions of the 
Pacific Coast. 



CHAPTER XI 
FRUIT SETTING AND POLLINATION 

One of the most important phases of the orchard prob- 
lem is pollination. Without this, fruit does not set and 
crops are impossible. Broadly speaking, there are two 
phases of the problem: (1) The primary effect of pollin- 
ation, that is the fertilization of the pistils of the flower so 
that the bloom is capable of setting fruit; and (2) the 
secondary effect of cross-pollination about which much has 
been written, but about which there is still little definite 
information. In a study of the secondary effect of pollin- 
ation such questions arise as what effect Baldwin pollen 
will have on the Mcintosh apple or how the cross-pollina- 
tion among certain varieties will affect the form, size, 
flavor or color of the fruit. 

Many varieties are known to be self-sterile. This term 
is applied to varieties which are unable to set fruit without 
the aid of pollen from another variety. Here attention is 
called to the fact that pollen from a different tree of the 
same variety does not constitute cross-pollination. An 
indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of 
young fruit from isolated trees or from trees in solid 
blocks of the same variety. Self-sterility is not a constant 
character with any variety. The same variety may be 
seK-sterile in one region and nearly self-fertile in another. 
Emphasis is placed on the fact that local conditions greatly 

249 



250 The Commercial Apple Industry 

influence self-sterility or self-fertility. Poorly nourished 
trees are more likely to be self-sterile than well nourished 
ones. 

Imperfect pollination is more often due to other causes 
than the absence of suitable varieties for cross-pollination. 
Furthermore, it is not always necessary to have a heavy set 
of bloom to secure a heavy yield of fruit. It is well known 
that under normal conditions if 4 to 7 per cent of the blos- 
soms set fruit in a good bloom year, a large crop of fruit is 
insured. If 10 per cent of the blossoms set fruit when the 
bloom is heavy, it is an indication of a very large crop. 
These facts do not minimize the importance of pollination, 
however, and it is highly important that every care should 
be taken to insure proper fertilization of the flowers. 
While the benefits of cross-fertilization are recognized as 
important in all plant-breeding work, the experimental 
data on the secondary effect of pollination are so contra- 
dictory as not to offer a field for definite discussion. The 
results of- experiments to determine the effect of cross- 
pollination on color, form and flavor of the fruit have been 
largely negative. For that reason, this discussion will be 
largely confined to the primary effect of pollination. 

CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE TO SET FBUIT 

Failure of blossoms to set fruit properly is not by any 
means due in all cases to imperfect pollination. Many 
factors other than this affect the set of fruit and are more 
often the cause of light crops. Among the factors causing 
a light set of fruit are : 

1. Fruit-spurs and trees may be weak on account of a 
lack of proper nourishment. When trees are starved for 
proper plant-food or when it is not made available by good 



Fruit Setting and Pollination 251 

soil management, the fruit-spurs become weak and fail to 
set fruit-buds which have sufficient vitality to develop into 
fruit. This often accounts for the crop failure of old trees 
making little annual growth. In such cases, lack of proper 
nourishment is more often the cause of unfruitfulness than 
lack of cross-pollination. 

2. Insects and diseases prevalent at blooming time may 
cause a poor set of fruit. Some of the bloom is often 
destroyed outright by various diseases, particularly apple- 
scab, anthracnose, or blight. Many blossoms may be 
ruined in their early development by the attacks of insects. 

3. Extreme vegetative vigor of the tree on account of an 
excess of certain elements of plant-food may detract from 
fruitfulness. Often when a tree is growing too vigorously, 
it runs largely to wood growth and sets very few blossoms 
and even these are shed as soon as the blooming period is 
past. Excessive amounts of nitrate or manure when 
applied to orchards already making good growth often 
over-stimulate wood groMh to the point at which the trees 
are almost barren. Furthermore, in such cases the fruit- 
buds go into the winter in an immature condition with less 
chance of escaping winter-injury. Most experimenters 
agree that wood growth can not keep up vigorously during 
the entire season without sacrificing a healthy set of fruit- 
buds. 

4. Drought injury to trees may prevent the development 
of fruit-buds. It has been noted that when excessively 
long droughts occur, trees produce very little bloom the fol- 
lowing season. The weakening influence of the drought 
prevents the formation of fruit-buds with sufficient vitality 
to form fruit. In such cases the tree requires all its 
energy to repair vegetative growth, and even though it may 



252 The Commercial Apple Industry 

bloom profusely the blossoms are so weak that they fail to 
set fruit. 

5. Winter-injury to fruit-buds may occur. The apple 
ordinarily does not suffer greatly from winter-killing of 
fruit-buds. In the case of most varieties, the fruit-buds 
are no more sensitive to winter-killing than the tree itself. 
However, the vitality of the buds may unquestionably be 
affected by the character of the winter, particularly if the 
relative humidity is low. Dry atmosphere and soil are 
more often the cause of injury to fruit-buds than extreme 
cold. 

6. The buds or bloom may be injured by late spring 
frosts. Often buds are injured by frost before bloom and 
if not killed outright are so weakened as to be unable to 
set fruit. Fortunately, when freezes occur before bloom, 
there are usually some buds which are not so far advanced 
as others and which for this reason escape injury. Severe 
killing frosts are those which occur when the trees are in 
full bloom or just as the bloom is being shed. ' Frost at 
this time may so impair the fruiting organs as to cause 
dropping of the fruit after it has once set. 

7. Some varieties have an inherent inability to set fruit, 
although gro^vn under favorable conditions and blooming 
profusely. These varieties are more frequently home 
orchard sorts and seldom trouble the commercial orchardist. 

8. The last and one of the most important factors which 
affect the proper set of fruit is pollination. Proper pol- 
lination is usually dependent on one or some combination 
of six different factors: (a) In the case of self-sterile or 
partially self-sterile varieties, proper pollination can not 
take place unless other suitable varieties are present for 
pollinizers. (b) An absence of insects or other agents 



Fruit Setting and Pollination 253 

may prevent pollination. Bees are almost essential. 
Other insects may be nseful, but none is as active in carry- 
ing pollen from flower to flower. The importance of delay- 
ing the calyx application of lead arsenate until most of the 
petals have fallen is now emphasized by most horticultur- 
ists as a precaution against poisoning bees. Much has 
been said about the importance of wind as a pollinizing 
agent, useful in carrying the pollen from blossom to blos- 
som and from tree to tree and much effort has been 
expended in determining its effectiveness. Most author- 
ities agree that fully 99 per cent of all fertilized blossoms 
owe pollination to bees or other insects and less than 1 per 
cent to the wind. As a direct agency, therefore, wind has 
very little effect as far as carrying pollen is concerned. It 
may, however, prevent bees from working on the windy 
side of the tree and thereby cause a lighter set of fruit on 
the exposed than on the sheltered side, (c) Eain or cold 
weather is a factor affecting pollination. Cold, wet or 
damp weather during the blooming period often checks 
the activity of bees and sometimes prevents the germina- 
tion and causes decomposition, or devitalization, of the 
pollen-grains. Unfavorable weather at blooming is a very 
important factor in reducing the set of fruit, particularly 
through the central western states, and often in the East, 
(d) Very hot and dry weather may also prevent proper 
pollination, particularly if accompanied by wind. Excess- 
ive heat may injure the stamens so seriously that they can 
not properly mature their pollen or it may cause dehiscence 
of the anthers before the pollen matures, (e) Excessively 
windy weather. Strong winds, particularly if accom- 
panied by rain are very injurious to the blossoms. The 
rain is likely to wash away the pollen-grains and strong 



254 The Commercial Apple Industry 

winds prevent the activity of bees. In very hot weather 
high winds may so entirely dry up the fluid secreted by the 
stigma as to make germination of the pollen-grains impos- 
sible, (f ) Spraying in full bloom. Injury is caused and 
pollination is sometimes prevented if trees are sprayed in 
full bloom before pollination has taken place. 

The above discussion outlines some of the influences 
affecting the set of fruit. It now becomes important to 
consider mixed varieties with relation to cross-pollination. 
It is generally recognized that too much emphasis was 
formerly placed on the advisability of mixing varieties in 
order to aid in pollination. As a result, many orchards 
were set with mixed varieties when two or three well 
selected kinds would have provided for cross-pollination 
and would have been a much more desirable arrangement 
from a commercial standpoint. " The orchardist too often 
proceeded on the theory that if a few different varieties 
were advisable as pollinizers, many were the more desir- 
able. As a' matter of fact, one variety which is a good 
pollinizer may serve exactly as well as a score. The much 
discussed secondary effects of pollination should not be 
allowed too greatly to influence the planting of pollinizers. 
The direct effects of crossing certain varieties have not been 
established. Variations in the characteristics of different 
apples are now more generally attributed to bud variation 
than to cross-pollination. It is generally conceded that 
flavor, quality or color of apples is not directly affected by 
the cross-pollinating variety. 

This should in no way be construed as an argument 
against cross-pollination, for in the case of the self-sterile 
or partially self-sterile varieties it is absolutely essential. 
Cross-pollination may effect the size of fruit and may 



Fruit Setting and Pollination 255 

increase the set. Darwin states : " Nature abhors self- 
fertilization." 

ESSENTIALS FOE A GOOD POLLINIZEE 

The following points should be considered in selecting 
varieties for pollination: (1) Not more than one row in 
six is necessary to insure certainty of proper pollination 
under normal weather conditions and in the presence of 
pollinizing agents. However, attention is called to the 
fact that varieties to be handled, economically should occur 
in plantings of at least two or three rows. (2) Varieties 
should bloom at the same time. This is clearly necessary, 
otherwise the pollen of one variety would be entirely gone 
before the other bloomed, making cross-pollination impossi- 
ble. (3) Varieties must have an affinity for each other; 
that is to say, the pollen of one must be acceptable to the 
pistils of the other. It is well in this connection to men- 
tion the fact that pears will not serve to pollinate apples 
or vice-versa. (4) Varieties must be good pollen-pro- 
ducers. If varieties which produce little pollen are 
planted with those producing abundant pollen, the former 
but not the latter will be benefited. It is important here 
to mention that Winesap is a very shy pollen-producer and 
should not be planted for the purpose of pollinating other 
varieties. (5) Varieties should come into bearing at 
about the same age. Such kinds as the Northern Spy 
would not immediately serve as pollinizers for the Wagoner 
or Twenty Ounce, since the former is an extremely late 
bearer. (6) The varieties should be commercial. While 
this is not at all necessary so far as cross-pollination is 
concerned, it is highly important from a commercial stand- 
point. It is clearly inadvisable to plant non-commercial 



256 The Commercial Apple Industry 

varieties as pollinizers when so many good commercial 
sorts are readily available. 

It is important in any discussion of pollination to name 
some of the varieties which are known as uncertain or self- 
sterile as well as some of those known as self-fertile. 
Cross-pollination with some other variety is usually advis- 
able, since in most cases it increases the set of fruit. 

Uncertain or Self-stekile Dependable or Self-febtxle 

Varieties, Varieties. 

Arkansas Ben Davis 

Tompkins King Baldwin 

Grimes Oldenburg 

Jonathan Rhode Island Greening 

Gravenstein Yellow Transparent 

Northern Spy Yellow Newtown 

Ortley 

Red Limbertwig 

Rome Beauty 

Esopus 

Twenty Ounce 

Winesap 

The following varieties are grouped according to their 
desirability for securing best results in pollination. Each 
column contains those which are well pollinated by any 
one or more of the varieties in the same column. Certain 
limitations should be placed on this table, since in certain 
localities some compatible kinds bloom too early to pollin- 
ate later-blooming varieties. However, the pollen of each 
has an affinity for the pistil of the varieties in the same 
column. 



Fruit Setting and Pollination 



357 



II 

Wealthy 

Rome Beauty 

Yellow Transparent 

Yellow Bellflower 

White Winter Pearmain 

Winesap 

Willow Twig 

Wagener 

Esopus 



Arkansas Black 

Baldwin 

Ben Davis 

Gano 

Grimes 

Jonathan 

Mcintosh 

Yellow Xewtown 

Northern Spy 

Ortley 

Gravenstein 

Oldenburg 

Red Astrachan 



Many other varieties might be named, but these lists 
contain a sufficient number to satisfy the commercial 
grower. If a region is particularly adapted to a combina- 
tion of any two or three commercial sorts, they may be 
interplanted with great success without detracting from 
the very important practice of limiting the number to a 
few commercial varieties. At the same time such com- 
binations will insure abundant opportunity for proper 
cross-pollination. 



i 



CHAPTER XII 
PRUNING AND THINNING 

Pruning will always remain a field for independent and 
individual study. No other orchard practice has aroused 
in the minds of fruit-growers and horticulturists greater 
variance in opinion. While investigators and observers 
are in accord on many of the principles of pruning, their 
application must always remain, to some extent, an indi- 
vidual problem. An apple-grower would do well to study 
pruning in the most productive orchards of his community 
and observe the system that has been practiced on the best 
and most productive trees. 

It is the purpose to give a brief description of the 
several pruning practices in use in the more important 
fruit-producing sections and to state briefly the advantages 
and disadvantages of such practices. 

Before planting, the ends of all broken or injured roots 
should be removed. This is done not with the idea of 
shortening the roots, but with the view of leaving smooth 
rather than broken and ragged root ends. Occasionally 
a few roots may be removed so as to avoid crowding and 
secure better distribution of the root system. 

Since a large proportion of the root system is removed 
when the tree is taken from the nursery, it is necessary to 
remove a portion of the top to restore a proper balance 
between the root system and top. Again, the removal of 

258 



Pruning and Thinning 



259 



■a portion of the top determines 
the height of head and encourages 
the formation of a stocky and vig- 
orous framework. 

The height of heading will vary 
with the type of training to be fol- 
lowed and the locality. Lower 
heading is practiced with the open 
center type of tree than with the 
leader or modified types, as is 
pointed out elsewhere in this chap- 
ter. In those sections in which 
sun-scald is prevalent, it is neces- 
sary to head lower than where this 
trouble is not a factor. The 
height of heading apples at planting time may thus vary 
from 20 to 36 inches. (See Fig. 4.) 




Fig. 4. — Showing 
framework of a young 
Jonathan tree. The 
trunk is too short and 
the branches too nearly 
horizontal. 



TYPES OF TRAINING APPLE TEEES 

All pruning practices are applied with the idea of 
developing the type of tree suited to the local conditions 
or conforming to the ideas of the individual. The prun- 
ing given trees during the first few years may be referred 
to as training. There are several methods of training 
apple trees, those in common use in commercial regions 
throughout the United States being : The " natural form " ; 
the " central leader " type ; the " open center," or "vase- 
shaped " tree ; the " double headed " type ; and the " mod- 
ified leader," or " modified open center " tree. 



260 The Commercial Apple Industry 



i 



Natural form. 

This system of training has been followed largely in the 
old orchards of Xew York, New E-ngland and some of 
the middle western states, and by growers generally who 
had no definite type in mind. Very little pruning is 
required as compared with other methods of training. 
The top ordinarily consists of a cluster of branches spring- 
ing from one point and forming a round head. The pruner 
merely removes crowding and crossing branches and limits 
the number of main branches. In the more humid 
climates, later pruning is confined to the removal of cross- 
ing and crowding branches and to the shortening of way- 
ward branches for the purpose of maintaining tree bal- 
ance. In the drier climates of the Middle West, all the 
branches are usually headed back for the first few years 
in order to encourage stockiness. 

Advantages. 

1. Most simple type of training and work may be done by 
unskilled men. 

Disadvantages. 

1. Too many main branches are frequently left, resulting in 
crowding and overlapping main branches. 

2. Splitting at the crotches is not uncommon. 

3. Frequently main branches are not stocky enough to sup- 
port loads of fruit in natural positions, the result being over- 
lapping branches and much poorly colored fruit. 

4. Uneven distribution of fruiting wood is not uncommon 
when trees become mature. 

5. Trees in the orchard lack uniformity. 

6. Trees of this type often require heroic treatment later on. 





t v*"^ 



-^^gr 





LATE XVI. — Diseases of the apple. 1, Bitter-rot on Pippin showing spots 
I red specks. 2, Sooty-fungus and fly-speck. 3, Apples affected with th« 
b fungus. 4, Leaf afl'ected with apple-scab. 



Pruning and Thinning 



261 



Central leader system. 

By this method one central 
leader is allowed to develop year 
after year until its increasing- 
height is naturally checked as the 
tree begins fruiting. Such lat- 
eral branches are allowed to re- 
main as will not crowd and will 
give the best distribution and bal- 
ance in later years. The lateral 
branches are considerably smaller 
than the central leader and strong 
unions are formed. While this 
system of pruning has never been 
widely practiced by commercial 
fruit-growers, it has had some 
popularity, especially for dwarfs 
and certain varieties such as the 
Jonathan and members of the Ben Davis group. 
Fig. 5.) 



/\ 1 

1 




'/ 



Fig. 5. — A well 
pruned young Jonathan 
tree trained to the cen- 
tral leader form. 



(See 



Advantages. 

1. Strong trees are produced. Crotches seldom split apart. 

2. Great skill is not required to inaugurate and adhere to 
this type of pruning. 

3. Trees like the Rhode Island Greening and Jonathan with 
tendencies to develop low drooping side branches lend them- 
selves to the method. 

Disadvantages. 

1. It is difficult to keep trees opened up sufficiently to permit 
light to penetrate to the inner parts. 

2. Trees usually become too high thereby making orchard 
operations more difficult and expensive. 



263 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Open center, or vase-sliape {Fig. 6). 




Fig. 6. — An exces- 
sively pruned young De- 
licious tree carved out 
to the vase form. 



The open center type of train- 
ing was the first definite system 
generally advocated after commer- 
cial apple-growing became estab- 
lished in this country on a highly 
specialized basis. It was for a 
time quite generally adopted by 
fruit-growers in all sections of the 
United States as the ideal method 
of training and is still advocated 
by some professional horticultur- 
ists and is practiced by many 
fimit-growers. The development 
of certain weaknesses in the 
strictly vase-shaped tree has led to a modification of this 
type of pruning, however. 

In starting an open center tree, one-year-old whips are 
usually headed at 20 to 26 inches at planting time. The 
following winter or spring three to five well distributed 
branches are usually chosen to form the permanent frame- 
work of the tree, the leader being removed the first year. 
The three to five main branches growing outward and 
upward give the vase-like shape to the tree. After the first 
season's growth, all the leaders are cut back heavily to 
approximately the same height. Equal cutting is con- 
tinued each year until the framework is completed, in order 
that no one of the main scaffold branches may attain prom- 
inence over the other. The center is kept sufficiently open 
to permit the penetration of light throughout the tree. 
The result is a spreading low-headed tree, sufficiently open j 
to permit good coloring of the fruit. j 



Pruning and Thinning 263 

It is usually customary to remove some 50 to 60 per cent 
of the first year's growth on each of the selected scaffold 
branches, provided the tree has made a vigorous growth. 
However, as previously mentioned, all of the scaffold 
branches should be cut back to approximately the same 
height, measured from the grolmd. In the succeeding 
year, two secondary branches are usually selected on each 
primary branch, the others being removed. The next year 
these secondary branches are usually shortened by the 
removal of about 40 per cent of the season's growth. 
However, the secondary branches should not be left shorter 
than a foot. 

Pruning during the succeeding two or three seasons is 
along similar lines, except that the amount of heading back 
, is lessened each year, provided the tree does not make too 
rank a growth. 

• Advantages of the vase-shaped tree. 

' 1. The penetration of light and air is permitted to all parts 
of the top, which results in a high percentage of functioning 
fruiting wood and much highly colored fruit. 

2. The method results in a low, spreading, well balanced tree. 

3. The type and form is easily established and maintained. 

' 4. The ideal may be closely approached with every one-year- 
old whip. 

t Disadvantages. 

^ 1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that 
i; the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same 
j point, thus leaving weak crotches. 

2. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split- 
ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age. 
' 3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other 



264 The Commercial Apple Industry 

scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and further 
breaking usually follows. 

4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is 
permanently injured. 

5. The amount of bearing wood is limited. 

The double-headed type. 

In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and 
West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main 
branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed 
by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of 
a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted, 
the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves 
the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the 
ground. After the first year's growth and before growth 
starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis- 
tributed branches are selected and all others removed. 
The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed 
back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright 
branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth. 

After the second season's growth has been made, two 
secondary branches are selected on each primary branch 
except the leader and the others are removed. These 
secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20 
inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back 
even more severely. The second year's growth on the 
leader is removed with the exception of the most upright 
development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches 
of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the 
leader extending 2^/^ to 3 feet above the first scaffold. 

After the third season's growth, the lateral main 
branches and their secondary growth are handled in a 



Pruning and Thinning 265 

manner similar to that following the second season's 
growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is 
after the third year that the second story of scaffold 
branches is started from the central leader at a distance of 
about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches. 
Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and 
the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches 
are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier. 
The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and 
the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes 
' advisable to add a third story. 

: Advantages. 

■ 1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral 
branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do 
not form weak crotches, as are likely to occur when all of the 
main branches are of equal size. 

2. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight 
main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among 
three or four branches as is the case in open center trees. 

3. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open 
center trees, since the space in the center is more completely 

.occupied. 

4. Siifficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the 
'tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the 
• second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics 
[of a strictly open center tree. 

5. A rather low spreading top is secured and at the same time 
[a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system. 

t Disadvan tages. 

r 1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too 

many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition. 

2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold 

oranches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and 

j ?ood judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance. 



366 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



The modified leader tree. 

In reacting from the two extremes embodied in the 
strictly " vase-shaped " tree and the central leader type, 
many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing 
regions have adopted the " modified leader " system, thus 
appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As 
the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified 
leader type. 

Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to 
seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central 
trunk after the fashion of an as- 
cending spiral are permitted to re- 
main and form the framework of 
the tree. It is impossible to se- 
cure all of these branches from a 
single season's growth, from two to 
three being selected the first year 
and the remainder later. The per- 
manent framework may not be se- 
cured short of three or four years. 
One point to be remembered is 
that scaffold branches should be 
spaced well apart. Branches that 
are only two or three inches apart 
will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity. 
Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart. 
(See Fig. 7.) 

The leader is permitted to develop during the first three 
or four years while the framework branches are being 
selected. The first year's growth will usually consist of an 
almost upright branch together with several laterals. It 
may be possible to select two or even three well distributed 




Fig. 7. — Mature Jon- 
athan tree with com- 
mon type of frame- 
work. 



Pruning and Thinning 267 

scaffold branches after the first year. All others except 
the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut 
back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time, 
it is left somev.'hat longer than the other branches. On 
vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader 
is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals. 
The whole question of heading back* is a subject of varied 
opinion which will be discussed later. 

Additional laterals will develop during the second year. 
One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added 
to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are 
treated in the manner described for the year previous, 
although heading back is usually less severe. 

The system is continued during the third and if neces- 
sary even to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold 
branches have been developed, the leader is removed and 
there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven 
feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more 
main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc- 
tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches. 

Advantages. 

1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the 
central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus 
leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split- 
ting. 

2. The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and 
among several main branches rather than among three or four 
branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees. 

3. *rhe system encourages a good distribution of main 
branches about and along the central axis. 

4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease, 
there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown 
to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance. 



268 The Commercial Apple Industry 

5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for 
fruiting. 

6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur 
activity and highly colored fruit. 

7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per- 
mits economical orchard operations. 

D isadvantages. 

1. More judgment is required in building this type of tree 
than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with 
the shaping of the trees. 

2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the 
upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the 
latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or 
scaffold branches. 

3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave 
the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals, 
thus destroying proper balance. 

GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES 

The foregoing has been a general description of the dif- 
ferent types of trees, but the reader has gained little infor- 
mation as to what actually is done each year during 
the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting [ 
back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type j 
of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified 
leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well. 

After first season. 

If there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30 
inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per 
cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not 
exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches 
and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the 



Pruning and Thinning 269 

secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold 
branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater 
than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs 
make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop- 
ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold 
limbs to two or three buds. 

After second season. 

Heading back should be less severe after the second sea- 
son's growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches 
new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the scaf- 
fold branches. Others think that very little heading back 
should be done after this time regardless of the amount of 
growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be 
headed back very little after the second or third year. It 
is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing 
branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading 
back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness. 
If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong 
enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur- 
ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches 
may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow- 
ing ones should be headed back more severely than the 
weaker growing ones. 

After third season. 

The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the 
same length, slight predominance being given to the leader 
if it is retained. When the modified leader type is 
being followed, the third year may see the development 
of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the 



270 The Commercial Apple Industry 

leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time 
it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree. 

Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the 
middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such 
wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund- 
ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the 
main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There 
must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees 
are to produce wood. 

VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES 

A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods : 
(1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit- 
ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and 
soil management, changes materially with each of these 
periods. It is during the formative period that the tree 
devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The 
proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold 
branches during this time determines the ability of the 
tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. 
The length of the formative period is usually from four to 
six years, depending on the region and treatment provided. 

Transition period. 

Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between 
the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change 
from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age 
will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some 
varieties may not pass through this period until they 
become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par- 
ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav- 
ily at six and seven years. 



Pruning and Thinning 271 

Pruning during the transition period should be light 
and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with 
little or no heading back. The thinning out should be 
confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to 
shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom- 
ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should 
be removed. 

Too often the small lateral limbs and fruiting wood 
toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all 
the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again, 
tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough 
off due to lack of sunlight and air. 

The fruiting period. 

All pruning during this period is to develop and main- 
tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed 
throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist 
largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a 
liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to 
improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way- 
ward branches should be removed. The tree should be 
kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition. 
Regular annual pruning is essential. 

Fruit-huds. 

Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu- 
facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the 
fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral 
buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain 
varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New- 
town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is 
borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne 



272 The Commercial Apple Industry 

on one-year-old wood, but ou the side of the shoots instead 
of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short 
branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every 
alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds 
are usually developed from branches two years and older. 
If fruit-spurs are properly cared for, they may live and 
produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight 
or ten years. 

All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not 
develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow 
out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant. 
Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor- 
ous lateral buds. 

Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis- 
tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to 
conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the 
fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to 
produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun- 
shine and air, two factors on which a spur is entirely 
dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then, 
should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed 
throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of sunlight 
and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished 
by thinhing out as opposed to heading back. It permits 
more light to percolate through the tree and gives the 
leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food 
materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit- 
buds. 

Changing system of pruning. 

After the form of a tree has once been established, it is 
not considered advisable to change its type unless its form 



Pruning and Thinning 



273 



may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center 
tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi- 
fied leader should not be removed in 
later years in order to develop an 
open center tree. The type of train- 
ing should be established during the 
first three years and this same style 
should be followed out year after 
year. 

Trees four to ten years old that 
have been pruned with no definite 
type in view often present some very 
perplexing problems. The number 
and proper distribution of scaffold 
branches should be definitely chosen 
and part of the most objectionable 
branches removed the first year. In 
cases where there are a dozen main 
branches when half that number 
would sufiSce, it may be advisable to 
select only six for the permanent 
framework. The removal of the ob- 
jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of 
two or three years, however. 

Young trees which have been neglected should be cut 
back rather heavily to encourage the development of good 
strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading 
back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy 
branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces- 
sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When 
a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back 
to the side branch instead of to a bud. 




F^G. 8. — Common 
type of trunk and 
lower framework of 
Rome Beauty un- 
der northwest con- 
ditions. 



274 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Crossing and interfei"ing branches should be removed. 
If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of 
them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder 
freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com- 
mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition 
which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one 
limb heavier than the other. 

Bearing trees. , 

A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing 
age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit- 
ing machinery w^ell distributed, will require little subse- 
quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat- 
ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist 
largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or 
outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight 
and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be 
checked or removed. 

Gardner', of the Missouri Experimental Station, likens 
the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as 
little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is 
produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured 
into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of 
sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most 
abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power. 
The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain 
amount of sunlight. (See Plate XVI 1.) 

Each individual spur relies on its OAvn leaves for the 
manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses. 
It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts 
of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food 
materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production 



Pruning and Thinning 275 

of fruit-bncls and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient 
quantities of light. 

Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the 
most effective means of letting light in to each individual 
spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to 
develop activity within each individual spur and increase 
the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few 
large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and 
open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near 
the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into 
the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the 
distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to 
modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large 
limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts 
rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all 
parts. 

It is better to remove many small branches in thin- 
ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit- 
ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to 
permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of 
small branches requires time and makes it necessary for 
the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near 
the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will 
prove profitable. 

Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution 
and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout 
the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which 
have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the 
ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet 
long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the 



276 The Commercial Apple Industry 

tip, the balance of the limb being a " boarder " and living 
at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de- 
sirable to have several well developed laterals along- the 
scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be 
brought nearer the ground. 

TIME OF PEUNING 

No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time 
for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions. 
Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any 
favorable weather in the dormant season. 

In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun- 
ing is done from November to early April, while in the 
New England and middle western states, most of the 
work is during the spring months. Generally speaking, 
a slight preference should be given to pruning in late 
winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more 
readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning 
when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out 
or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun- 
ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this 
nature in bearing trees. 

If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work 
in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the 
younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning. 
Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to 
start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from 
bleeding. However, the writers know of no serious 
injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time. 

Summer pruning has received much attention in recent 
years but the results of investigations have been somewhat 
confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan- 



Pruning and Thinning 277 

tag'e in training the framework of a young tree. It may 
also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How- 
over, so many varying factors affect the time element that 
it is impossible to give exact dates at which summer 
pruning may be done tQ increase fruit production. The 
average grower should refrain from inaugurating this 
practice until a better understanding is had of its effects. 
Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re- 
moved to advantage during the summer months. 

PEUNING TOOLS 

The tool equipment will vary with the man and with 
the type of work. In the eastern region practically all 
of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw. 
With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that 
will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in 
young trees. 

Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir- 
able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily 
broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length, 
the latter usually being preferred. 

A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the " pull " 
is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both 
edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the 
bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used. 
This type is a modification of a butcher's saw equipped 
with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed 
blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the 
case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts 
and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made 
are clean and smooth. 

Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun- 



278 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this 
tool is slow and cutting lacks precision. 

Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work 
on young trees and also for working the lower parts of 
old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward 
in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage 
tj'pe of " loppers " is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the 
preferred length. 

WOUND DRESSINGS 

Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to 
the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting 
wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed 
wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones. 
However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable, 
white lead or white zinc thinned down with linseed oil 
having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some- 
times preferred for large wounds since these substances 
are considered better preservatives than paint. The 
heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years 
before it is completely healed over. 

Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read- 
ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting 
over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom- 
mended. 

THINNING 

Although practiced very extensively in some parts of 
the country and particularly in the West, many growers 
are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the 
production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care- 
fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further 



Pruning and Thinning 279 

proof of the fact that this is one of the most important 
and profitable of all orchard operations. 

For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and 
Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen- 
eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the 
largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from 
well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be 
said for orchards in all other parts of the country where 
this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the 
Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his 
trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to- 
gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the 
great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi- 
pal reasons which deter most growers from following this 
practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex- 
pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy 
crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year 
might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper- 
ation incident to the production of high-class fruit. It 
should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every 
heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be 
secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the 
competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes 
greater, thinning will become more and more a general 
practice in every commercial region in the country. 

In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it : 
(1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand- 
ling costs such as for picking and packing; (3) prevents 
overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages 
annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6) 
reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior, 
diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7) 



280 ' The Commercial Apple Industry 

secures uniformity of size and market quality of fruit; 
(8) insures a high price for crop. 

(1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the 
size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques- 
tioned. Xot only are the apples larger, but the color of 
fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on 
overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci- 
mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality 
and flavor. 

(2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and 
handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially 
lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time, 
they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense. 
Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in 
thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality 
of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest 
time. 

(3) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im- 
paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros- 
pects for the next year's crop are very much poorer than 
if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to 
measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual 
yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques- 
tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned 
orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while 
most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially. 

(4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the 
vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in- 
creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it 
increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in- 
creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for 



Pruning and Thinning 881 

reauced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu- 
tion the tree may better hold its load. 

(5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung, 
diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner 
greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some 
ways check the spread of the injury. 

(6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities 
in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera- 
tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in 
size and marketable quality of fruit. 

(7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of 
highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It 
increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in- 
sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will 
be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If 
a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and 
other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in 
years when his trees tend to overbear. 

Time and method of thinning. 

Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June 
or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has 
occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts, 
the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and 
artificial thinning may be begun profitably. 

Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit 
or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances 
thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which 
time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off. 
Still other growers thin their apples by making several 
pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best 



282 The Commercial Apple Industry 

and most matured apples for market and allowing the 
others to remain. Such practices can hardly be classed 
under the head of thinning, although they may be profit- 
able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to 
early thinning. 

The common practice in thinning is to start early after 
the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to 
varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples 
at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still 
others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely 
on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not 
the apples of the variety are normally large or small when 
mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe 
rule to follow. 

Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce 
their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to 
one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any case, 
if systematic thimiing can not be practiced, the clusters 
should at least be thinned as this prevents much insect 
injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The 
amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree, 
the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No def- 
inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of 
thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes 
putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on 
the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North- 
west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are 
on the market. The advantage to be gained in using thin- 
ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled 
off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be 
broken or damaged. 



Pruning and Thinning 283 

Cost of thinning. 

The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such 
as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method 
used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The 
average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In 
the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average 
amount. It must be remembered, however, that the 
Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of 
access than in the older orchards of the East and Central 
West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to 
five trees is a day's work. It would not do to figure aver- 
ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much 
thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin 
the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is 
done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these 
regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee, 
the amount of labor expended would be about the same to 
the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe 
in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an 
amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel 
of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than 
this amount. 



CHAPTER XIII 
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 



I 



Throughout the countr}^ and particularly in the east- 
em and central western states ' are many thousands of 
apple trees which at present have little or no commercial 
significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards, 
the average of which includes at most but a few acres of 
poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There 
are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for 
commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this 
latter acreage that the discussion on renovation will partic- 
ularly apply. 

Greatest possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many 
sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old 
neglected orchards are for the most part of such small 
size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement 
for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re- 
quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating 
this method of entering the business of growing apples 
commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ- 
uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards 
and by renovation make much quicker returns on the 
money invested than would have been possible had a 
young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the 
latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex- 

284 



Renovation of Old Orchards 285 

ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known 
commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which 
receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage- 
ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state- 
ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at- 
tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the 
process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the 
period when they may be reclaimed profitably. 

It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg- 
ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc- 
cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that 
the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of 
proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant 
some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful 
whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which 
many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully 
and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or- 
chards, of course, might well be restored for home use. 

Commercial orchards to be renovated should include 

varieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should 

be accessible to market and labor. However, one might 

^ profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it 

' would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An 

established orchard always enjoys an important advantage 

' from being already in bearing. 

' The following suggestions are ofi"ered with regard to the 
' process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much 
■ to the home orchard as to commercial plantings : 



General treatment. 

All dead wood' and cankers should be cut out and the 
trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar 



286 The Commercial Apple Industry 

tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark. 
This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard 
pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should 
be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be 
beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary. 

In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the 
first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split- 
ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final 
cut. 

It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate 
or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree 
paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against 
decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When 
small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to 
a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and 
decay follows. 

The chances are that in old neglected orchards many 
holes will be fovmd in the trunks of the trees where limbs 
have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay 
has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed 
wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi- 
ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water 
and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such 
treatment is not practicable. ' , 

Pruning. 

In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has 
been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in 
mind. 

A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of 
the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top 
with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground. 



Renovation of Old Orchards 287 

It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may 
be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex- 
isting fruiting wood. 

Very often, however, because of excessively high trees, 
severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops 
is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re- 
move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though 
such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of 
the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage 
lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a 
part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis- 
tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in 
order to preserve the balance between the roots and the 
top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through 
exposure to direct sunlight. 

It is important that the outer parts and tops of all 
trees should be well thinned by working from the top 
and tips of the branches downward. This provides for 
penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting 
wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a 
grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely 
as far as he can reach conveniently, leaving the outer part 
of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in- 
dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops. 

Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree. 
Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones 
spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring 
fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the 
brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther 
down on the main limbs. The following year the water- 
sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24 
inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw 



288 The Commercial Apple Industry 

out laterals and eventually lower the fruiting area. In 
pruning water-sprouts, the leader should be cut slightly 
less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the 
leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent. 

Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun- 
ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should 
bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch 
does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit- 
ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned 
heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular 
limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod- 
erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention 
given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve 
to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to 
afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into 
new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System- 
atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years 
if renovation is to be made effective. 

Spraying. 

After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough 
spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested 
with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A 
thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up 
measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu- 
lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in 
commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im- 
portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the 
spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost 
branches. The importance of spraying can not be em- 
phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova- 
tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.) 



Benowition of Old Orchards 289 

Soil management. 

Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno- 
vation, although in x'^ome instances deep plowing may re- 
sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially 
when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the 
roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too 
greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened. 
Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis- 
factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done 
without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti- 
vation is best and should be performed as soon in the 
spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it 
is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop 
in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two 
essentials have become depleted. 

In many instances inter-crops have been continuously 
grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de- 
cidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food. 
When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure, 
from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil 
fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de- 
ficient, an application of complete commercial fertilizer, 
consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid 
phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may 
be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex- 
periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used 
alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be 
generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial 
fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above 
amounts to a tree may be cut to about half. 

In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard 



290 The Commercial Apple Industry 

renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray- 
ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible 
addition of commercial fertilizer. 






CHAPTER XIV 

HANDLING THE CROP 

The handling of the crop includes the operations from 
the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market. 
Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order 
that the apples may reach the market in good condition. 

PICKING (plate XVIII ) 

The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and 
with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and 
cultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera- 
tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity 
earlier on older trees than on young ones ; also that apples 
grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in 
cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be 
feared more than immaturity, although both conditions 
may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means 
hard ripe and not eating ripe. Since the time of picking 
has so much to do with the keeping qualities of the fruit, 
it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety 
be studied in every particular locality. The following 
points should be taken into consideration in order to de- 
termine the correct picking time for different varieties of 
apples : 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from 
the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5. 

tendencies of certain varieties to drop. 

291 



292 The Commercial Apple Industry 

1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the 
time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates 
from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples 
are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker 
will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs. 
The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily 
from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop- 
ping or over-maturity of the fruit. 

2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower's 
guide in determining time of picking. In this connection 
it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples 
have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is 
the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather, 
coloring may be checked and under such conditions there 
is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very 
often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored 
varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens 
are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly 
colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun- 
light. It must be remembered that an added picking rep- 
resents a considerable expense warranted only in the case 
of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean 
a considerable increased price for the product. Investi- 
gations ^ have revealed that in the case of red apples the 
ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the 
most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits 
this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick, 
the ground color should have turned to a white or very 
light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates 
over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such 

1 Bull. 587. U. S. Dept. Agr. 




Plate XVIII.— Shomnor method of picking practiced in Vir- 
ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers 
will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method. 



m 



Handling the Crop 293 

varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees 
results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage. 

3. For green varieties and particularly early green 
apples, size is an important factor. The grower should 
not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose 
through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are 
made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree 
will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of 
the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord- 
ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite 
idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given. 

4. It has been recommended that apples should not be 
picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the 
color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu- 
rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The 
seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked, 
but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi- 
cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have 
brown seeds. 

5. Such varieties as Mcintosh, Wagener, and Tomp- 
kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman, 
Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The 
grower should watch these tendencies and should regard 
heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate 
picking. 

No other operation in the physical handling is more 
essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking. 
The pickers should be impressed with the importance of 
preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin, 
since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage 
decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay 
can not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may 



294 The Commercial Apple Industry 

pull off the friTit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in 
climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders. 
Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in- 
volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it 
should be put in storage as soon as possible. Two or 
three days' exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick- 
ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of 
the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately 
stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which 
is left in the orchard for several days after picking. 

Contract picking versus day labor. 

In connection with the operation of picking, it is im- 
portant to consider the contract system as compared with 
day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy. 
The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the 
danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends 
to sacrifice carefulness for speed. Most growers have 
avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining 
somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly ^ 
where labor is . scarce. Cost producticta studies have re- 1 
vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will . 
pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a i 
day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can ,' 
be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may 
offer an opportunity for speed and considerable saving in 
handling the crop. 



PicJciv^ utensils. 

Various types of picking utensils are in use and each 
has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag, 
suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at 



Handling the Crop 295 

the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a 
box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil 
in the ]^sorthwest. Some criticism is voiced against the 
picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit. 
When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a 
bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to 
more shaking or rolling about than if placed in pails. 
The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves 
both of the picker's hands free for picking. 

A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in 
emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and 
may afford better protection for the fruit. The round 
half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil 
throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be 
enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or 
padding the' bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire 
hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the 
hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree. 

If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance 
to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in 
the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the 
picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled 
and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the 
packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the 
fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table, 
since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas 
the picker will make the return trip with only one. AVhere 
the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles 
for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the 
orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in 
emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker 
should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the 



296 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



box or onto the table with 
sufficient force to cause se- 
vere bruising. A low or- 
chard wagon with springs 
is recommended for haul- 
ing receptacles of loose 
fruit. (See Fig. 9.) 

The pointed ladder is 
the most efficient type for 
picking in among the 
branches since it can be 
placed against a fork or 
limb without injuring the 
tree. Step-ladders with a 

single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs 

or from small trees. 




r^wr — "" wi^i wu^Pj i 

FiG. 9. — Slatted crate used very 
generally in the eastern states for 
bringing apples from orchard to 
paiking-house. 



PACKING (plate XIx) 

Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for 
grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the 
two general methods will be discussed separately. 
Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack- 
ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing 
in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap- 
ple region. Western growers early showed a preference 
for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good 
equipment are required in maintaining the high standard 
of the boxed pack. 

Sorting and packing harreled apples 

Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was 
packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing 



Handling the Crop 397 

equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity 
throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer- 
cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard, 
and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat- 
ment. 

Orchard packing. 

When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the 
equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted 
table or a canvas or burlap-top table. 

Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com- 
monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with 
wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in 
the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting- 
table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to 
two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes 
so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls 
down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is 
lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper 
'end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent 
■bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground 
as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters 
■ stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade 
"is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove 
^only the culls and rots. When two grades are being 
^packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit 
^passes over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside 
the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the 
table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at 
the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the 
' grade. 
I The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable 



298 The Commercial Apple Industry 

equipment, but in its use there is danger that inferior 
fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted 
table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle 
West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more 
and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table. 

Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in- 
terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or 
burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high, 
three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are 
emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table. 
Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in 
baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this 
system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls 
being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate 
barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills 
previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its 
grade. 

The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more 
careful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table. 
In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own 
fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the 
work of transferring fruit from the base of the tree to 
the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As 
previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient. 

Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should 
be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been 
used to some extent in orchard packing. 

Packing-houses for barreled apples. 

While orchard packing still predominates, the rapidly 
increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar- 
rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad- 



Handling the Crop 299 

vantages of a packing-bouse are: (1) Centralization of 
packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip- 
ment about tbe orchard; (2) packing may continue unin- 
terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers 
and other labor-saving devices may bo installed econom- 
ically; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if 
handled in the orchard. 

The eastern apple-grower has come to rely on cold 
storage rather than common storage in holding his crop 
for any length of time. For this reason, common storage 
in connection with packing plants is not recognized as 
such an important feature as in the West. The grower 
either sells his winter apples immediately or places them 
in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar- 
reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter 
for centralized packing operations. 

Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might 
arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro- 
viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or 
canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro- 
vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a 
small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav- 
ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a 
daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples. 

In the third class are the larger and best equipped 
mechanical sizers, fitted with conveyer belts, improved 
bins and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest 
speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such 
packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the 
orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on 
to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and 
delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The 



300 The Commercial Apple Industry 

sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit 
as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad- 
ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously. 
The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt 
lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate 
the different grades. A separate set of bins is then re- 
quired for each grade. 

The machines now most commonly used throughout 
the East size but a single grade, the fruit being sorted ac- 
cording to one of the following two practices: (a) Only 
culls and rots are removed, the remainder being allowed 
to go into a single grade, in which case the smaller sizes 
are packed out as No. 2's and the larger sizes, usually 
from 2^ inches up, are called No. 1 ; or (b) not only are 
culls removed but also a second grade based on quality, 
the latter being diverted into a single bin without sizing. 
The first grade then proceeds along the conveyer belt to 
the sizing mechanism, the apples being delivered in bins 
according to their respective sizes. 

The growing tendency in the largest barreled apple dis- 
tricts where careful grading is practiced, is to size the 
first grade to quarter inch sizes. This makes a more at- 
tractive pack than one in which all sizes above a stated 
minimum are packed into the same barrel. In addition 
to the advantage of increased attractiveness of pack, the 
more exact sizing makes possible the handling of the fruit 
through more bins, and in this way eliminates congestion 
in any one bin. However, unless the volume of fruit 
handled is great enough to keep several packers busy when 
the apples are distributed among three or four bins, it is 
not advisable to attempt such exact sizing. 

In any of the above practices, the fruit is taken out of 



Handling the Crop 301 

its respective bin and placed in previously faced barrels. 
An additional workman then nails and stamps the barrel 
and places it in a position ready to be loaded on the cars 
or hauled to the shipping station. 

Some desirable features for the packing-shed under east- 
em and middle western conditions may be summed up as 
follows: (1) It is highly desirable that the packing- 
shed should be convenient to a railroad loading station. 
In the case of community packing-sheds, it is always es- 
sential that a site be selected where the fruit may be 
loaded immediately on cars. In such cases, the roof 
should slope to the back to permit of later additions to 
the building. (2) Storage space should be provided for 
empty barrels. This may be done conveniently by pro- 
viding a loft overhead with chutes for delivering the bar- 
rels to the packing-table. (3) It is highly important that 
attention be given to proper lighting. Light shafts over 
the sorting-table may be necessary. It is impossible to 
sort and grade fruit properly in darkened rooms. (4) It 
is usually advisable that larger packing-sheds be equipped 
with mechanical sizers. (5) Storage space should be pro- 
vided for loose fruit so that the packing operation may 
continue for a day or more without continued supply from 
the orchard. There should be storage also for one or more 
days' run of packed apples so that it will be unnecessary to 
ship odd lots of fruit. (6) An important point in pack- 
ing-house arrangement is to provide a conveyer or some 
means for preventing the culls from accumulating around 
the packing-table. (7) A receiving platform should be 
built at a convenient height for unloading fruit from 
wagons. When mechanical sizers are used, it is advisable 
to have the receiving platform at the same elevation as 



302 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the sizing machine. This obviates the necessity of lifting 
the fruit in -feeding the sizer. (8) In passing through 
the different 'packing-honse operations, the fruit should 
continue in the same general direction. (9) Ample floor 
space should be provided. Congestion greatly slows up 
packing operations. (10) A building more nearly square 
is better than a long narrow structure. (11) Building on 
a hillside may permit fruit to be unloaded and packed on 
the second floor. Packed fruit may then be stored on the 
first floor and hauled out from the lower side of the build- 
ing, and all fruit can be lowered to the basement by chutes 
or reverse elevators where it can accumulate without in- 
terfering with operations about the packing-table. 

Handling the western box apple crop 

The packing-house, whether it be a rude shelter or an 
elaborately equipped plant, is a recognized necessity in 
handling the boxed apple crop. More exact grading and 
sorting are required for boxed apples and this labor may 
be performed best in the centralized packing-house to 
which the fruit is drawn from the orchard. As stated 
above, common storage space is very often combined with 
the packing-shed, particularly in the case of the commu- 
nity packing-house. In such instances, the packing- 
house serves a double purpose. It provides space not only 
for the necessary packing-house equipment, but also for 
storing a large portion of either the loose or packed fruit. 
It is generally estimated that the packing-house should 
have storage for about one-third of its total output. In 
regions where car shortage is likely to occur, this is a 
good form of insurance. 

There is a most decided drift to the community packing 






Handling the Crop 303 

system in most western districts and under this plan, 
large expensive packing-houses are practicable. The in- 
dividual grower, however, commonly uses a lean-to shed 
or small frame apple house frequently constructed with 
a concrete basement. Enough space is usually provided 
in the packing-house for storing a considerable quantity 
of loose frait which may be packed out in inclement 
weather. 

Orchard carriers. 

In the boxed apple regions, the orchardist usually dis- 
tributes loose boxes under the trees throughout the or- 
chard so that the picker is not obliged to carry the fruit 
away from the base of the tree. Lug boxes, made of 
heavier lumber and slightly larger than the ordinary apple 
box, have met with some favor as orchard carriers. As a 
matter of economy, however, the western grower ordinarily 
prefers to use the standard northwest box as an orchard 
carrier, later using the same box as a package for the 
graded fruit. 

Low-wheeled orchard wagons are employed in haul- 
ing the loose boxes to the packing-shed. 

Sorting and pacTcing the hoxed apples. 

The operation of sorting is logically divided into sizing 
and grading for color, quality and freedom from blemishes. 
As has been stated, the barrel apple crop has thus far 
largely been packed out according to grades based on 
size, although in some regions distinction is made between 
the first and second grade according to color and quality, 
and freedom from blemishes. 

In the West, three standard grades are recognized and 



304 The Commercial Apple Industry 

are commonly spoken of as: (1) Extra Fancy, (2) 
Fancy, and (3) C grade. Grading rules governing these 
three grades vary slightly from year to year. In a gen- 
eral way, however, only normal apples approaching physi- 
cal perfection are specified as falling within the Extra 
Fancy grade. Greater tolerance in the way of color re- 
quirements and blemishes is permitted in the Fancy grade, 
although the fruit must be perfectly sound and of a high 
marketable quality. The " C " grade permits poorly 
colored or slightly misshapen fruit which is still sound. 
In the Pacific Northwest, all three grades are wrapped 
with paper, the diagonal pack being used. 

It is customary to hire sorters by the day while packing 
is by the piece. In the inter-mountain regions including 
the states of Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, all grades 
are not wrapped. In these states, a jumble or face and fill 
pack is common except in the case of Extra Fancy apples. 

It is interesting to know that in the movement for 
standardization of grades and packs, less attention is being 
given to grading by size and more according to quality 
and physical perfection. This is particularly applicable 
to the Northwest where the size of apples is clearly indi- 
cated by the number stamped on the outside of the box. 

The mechanical sizer, although growing in popularity 
and more widely used in the West than elsewhere, is not 
universal among all box apple-growers. It is generally 
felt that a mechanical sizer is only practicable when the 
crop amounts to 10,000 boxes or more. Many western 
growers still prefer to sort out their fruit from canvas or 
burlap-top tables similar to those used in the East and 
Middle West. Still others sort directly from the picking 
boxes as they are drawn to the packing-house. When hand 



Handling the Crop 305 

sorting is practiced, the sorters usually grade out the fruit 
into tliree grades without regard to size, the sizing being 
done by the packers. A long table with the sorters on one 
side and the packers on the other has been found efficient 
by many western growers. Others not infrequently size 
and grade by hand from canvas conveyer belts. 

Packing-house arrangement and operation. 

As might be expected, efficiency is exceedingly import- 
ant in western packing-houses, where the system of grad- 
ing and handling is very intricate. In the larger packing- 
houses of the West, conveyer belts and gravity conveyers 
are commonly used in receiving the fruit from the wagon 
and for moving the boxes about the warehouse or into 
the car. 

Gravity or belt conveyers eliminate much irksome labor 
in lifting boxes. In the modern packing-houses of the 
West, the boxes of loose fruit are imloaded from the wagon 
upon conveyers and are quickly carried to any part of 
the house desired. In moving the boxes about within the 
house, conveyers are used in bringing the loose fruit to 
the sizer and afterwards in carrying the packed boxes to 
the car or into storage. In the smaller houses, waiters 
are usually employed in carrying the fruit about the pack- 
ing-house in order that the sorters and packers may con- 
tinue their work uninterrupted. 

When mechanical sizers are used, much the same system 
of operation is followed as has been outlined for the pack- 
ing-house with mechanical sizers under eastern conditions, 
but it must be remembered, however, that many more sizes 
are packed out in the case of boxed apples than with the 
barrel pack. For this reason, a more elaborate system of 



306 The Commercial Apple Industry 

bins and a more accurate sizing machine is necessary. In 
most of the larger packing-sheds of the West, the main 
floor is used for receiving the fruit and as the packing- 
room. 

The system of handling the loose fruit as it comes in 
from the orchard is important. A receiving platform on 
the north side of the house is convenient for storing the 
fruit which is to be packed out immediately. Additional 
storing space for the loose boxes should be provided on the 
packing floor. All congestion tends to inefficiency. In- 
creased needs should be anticipated. 

An example of efficiency is seen in the large packing- 
shed which is equipped with conveyer belts carrying the 
loose boxes from the wagon directly to the sizing machine. 
Sorters examine the apples and then pass them to the siz- 
ing mechanism, and packers stationed at the bins imme- 
diately pack the fruit. Carriers or conveyors bring empty 
boxes to the packers and carry the packed boxes to the 
nailer. The packed fruit is then nailed, stamped and 
carried by conveyors either into storage or into the car for 
shipment. The movement of fruit to the car is delayed 
only by temporary storage as it is being fed into the sizer. 
As emphasized before, it is important that the fruit con- 
tinue in one direction when passing thi*ough the packing- 
house. Careful attention should be given to the disposi- 
tion of culls which are likely to cause congestion if left to 
accumulate on the packing floor. Removing the culls to 
elevated bins by conveying belts or allowing them to pass 
by means of canvas chutes into the basement are two means 
of solving this problem. The increasing value of cull 
fruit makes it advisable that this part of the crop be 
handled with great care to prevent unnecessary bruising. 












Plate XIX. — Packing the fruit. 1. Well packed boxes of apples 
showing different styles of packing used on large and small fruit. 
2. Good example of ring tailing. 3. An excellent face made with 
2%-inch apples. 4. Trucks have largely supplanted this method 
of hauling packed boxes in the Wenatchee Valley. 



Handling the Crop 307 

Mechanical sizer (Plate XX) 

The sizing' machine has become such an important fac- 
tor in the handling of both the commercial barreled and 
boxed apple crop as to require separate treatment. It 
seems apparent that this labor-saving device is destined to 
play an increasingly important part in the handling of 
commercial apples. The chief criticism offered against it 
is the attending danger of careless handling, which is 
being rapidly eliminated by greater mechanical perfec- 
tion and judicious operation. One of the greatest ad- 
vantages of the mechanical grader is sometimes over- 
looked. It lies in the precision with which the fruit may 
be handled. A machine properly fed insures a steady 
flow of fruit through the packing-house. Shirking, wasted 
or lost time becomes apparent at any delay. 

There are two general types in mechanical sizers : Those 
which size by weight and those which size by measure- 
ment. The former type seems best adapted to the use of 
the western growers, owing to the fact that boxed apples 
must be closely sized. Machines of the second type are 
more commonly used throughout the East where extreme 
accuracy is not required. Sizing machines vary in size, 
capacity, and price. The grower should insist on thor- 
ough demonstration. Electricity is the most satisfactory 
motive power in operating the larger machines, although 
gasoline engines and even hand power are very often 
employed with the smaller types. 

The following points should be considered when pur- 
chasing a sizing machine: (1) The capacity of the sizer 
should be consistent with the amount of fruit to be handled. 
(2) Simplicity of design should be sought as well as dur- 



308 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ability. Extreme accuracy is not required in sizing 
barreled apples as is the case with boxed apples. (3) The 
sizing should be accomplished without bruising the fruit. 

Community packing-houses 

The community packing-house idea is gaining in popu- 
larity and prominence, being a development of the cooper- 
ative movement so important among finiit-growers. The 
advantages of community packing-houses are numerous, 
and yet this plan is feasible only under certain favorable 
conditions. At the present time, most of the community 
packing-houses are in the western apple regions. By 
far the larger portion of the crop in such districts as Wen- 
atchee is being packed out under the community plan. 
This practice is gaining in western New York and in 
many^ other regions, and promises to play an increasingly 
important part in the efficient handling of the barrel apple 
crop. 

Some of the necessary conditions for the successful oper- 
ation of community packing-houses are as follows: (1) 
The plan is feasible only where more or less intensive 
and centralized plantings occur. While instances have 
been cited when fruit has been successfully hauled twenty 
miles to a communuity packing-house, it seems highly 
important that sufficient fruit be obtained within a radius 
of about four miles. Twelve miles, over good roads, is 
given as the maximum haul in the Pacific Northwest. 
(2) One hundred cars is usually considered the minimum 
which can be handled through a community packing-house 
with the greatest economy. (3) Community packing- 
houses should, scarcely without exception, be situated on a 
railroad. (4) There must be a community spirit and 



Handling the Crop 309 

willingness to cooperate among growers. (5) There 
must be some uniformity in the character of the ::ruit 
handled in order that there may be a common interest 
among growers. 

The following are some of the advantages in the com- 
munity packing-house plan: (1) There is a possibility of 
a greater standardization of grades. Apples packed up 
under a single management will be more uniform in grade 
than if packed under the direction of a dozen or more indi- 
viduals. (2) Competent help may be attracted by longer 
periods of employment. (3) By combining capital it 
becomes possible for the growers to build modern packing 
plants and equip them with all the labor-saving devices 
without incurring too great overhead expense. (4) It 
becomes economical to provide storage space as an insur- 
ance against loss. (5) A saving of 3 to 5 cents a box and 
10 to 15 cents a barrel is ordinarily effected in handling 
the crop, particularly if supplies are purchased in quan- 
tities for the members. (6) Community trucks may be 
employed economically in hauling fruit to the packing- 
house. (7) The grower may give his entire attention to 
the packing operation instead of devoting his efforts to 
finding a packing crew. 

Methods of operating community packing-houses. 

In most instances the grower hauls his fruit in loose 
boxes or barrels to the community shed where it retains 
the grower's identity during the packing operation. The 
cost of packing is pro rated by the barrel or box among 
the contributing members. Sufficient fruit must be 
handled to warrant the employment of a competent man- 
ager. 



310 The Commercial Apple Industry 

An interesting plan Las been evolved and is being oper- 
ated successfully in certain parts of the West. Under 
this method the grower's fruit loses its identity, first 
being weighed and credit being given for a certain arnouut 
of fruit by weight. A sample is taken representing 3 to 5 
per cent of each load and unbiased inspectors grade out 
the sample to determine what percentage will fall within 
the different grades. In this way, the grower of high- 
grade fruit is protected and credited for his superior 
product. The two principal advantages of this plan are 
that it saves about one-third of the storage space in the 
packing-house since each grower's fruit does not have to 
be packed by itself, and the growers know immediately into 
what grades their fruit will pack out. The chief disad- 
vantages are that much depends on the sample and the 
fruit may not pack out according to tests which causes 
dissatisfaction among members. The tendency is to 
examine fruit too critically. 

PacMng-house construction. 

Common storage plays such an important part in the 
handling of the boxed apple crop that it should receive 
separate, although necessarily brief, consideration in thisi 
discussion. Very often and particularly under the com- 
munity plan, the packing-house serves also as a common j 
storage. It is a common practice in the Northwest to 
pack the fruit on the main floor and store in the basement. 
Occasionally only a portion of the building is insulated, 
the remainder being used solely for the packing opera- 
tions. In some instances, the packing-house is entirely 
separate but adjoining a common storage. 

In any event, it should be remembered that a room can- 



Handling the Crop 311 

not serve as a common storage and at the same time be 
i used for packing operations. Particularly is this true in 
r the early fall when the day temperatures are high. At 
this time of the year, all doors and openings should be kept 
tightly closed during the day. It is even suggested that 
the doors be opened to admit fruit only in the early morn- 
ing. It is still better to open no doors but admit the boxes 
through a small opening fitted with canvas flap, as can 
' be done if conveyers are used. 

The hollow tile construction once so popular in the 

' Northwest is not entirely successful without other insul- 

I ators. In laying such tile, it is impossible to make all 

• joints perfect and for this reason the dead air space is 

I lost. Cork is the most effective insulator but it is very 

expensive. Eight inches of mill shavings used either in 

frame or hollow tile construction is the most economical 

' and at the same time efficient insulator for the West. The 

hollow tile has the advantage of being fire-proof. 

Common storage has not been successful wnth fall var- 
ieties such as the Jonathan, since their ripening period 
occurs before nature's cooling temperatures are obtained. 
Such varieties should be shipped immediately or placed 
in cold storage. The Delicious deteriorates and the Spitz- 
enburg tends to shrivel in common storage. On the other 
hand, the Sta^-man, if stored unpacked, sometimes keeps 
better in conunon than in cold storage on account of its 
tendency to scald in the latter. A well constructed com- 
mon storage, if properly operated, can bo safely used in 
the Pacific Northwest for holding most late varieties until 
February and some into March. 

The following are some of the points to be kept in 
mind when holding or operating a common storage: (1) 



313 The Commercial Apple Industry 

The intake area should represent 1 per cent of the floor 
space and the intake should occur below the false floor. 
(2) Boxes may be piled six high if two or three feet air 
space is left between the topmost box and the ceiling. (3) 
Mill shavings tend to become wet and to rot out when used 
in basement constructions. (4) Basement storage has 
the advantage of being cheaper usually and more econom- 
ical of ground since the packing-room is overhead. At 
the same time, as stated above, mill shavings tend to rot 
out and there is the extra labor in lifting fruit when it is 
to be taken out of storage. (5) Eight inches of mill 
shavings with one inch air space on either side is generally 
recommended for the Pacitic Northwest. (6) Since the 
success of common storage depends largely on ventilation, 
attention must be given to the installation of false floors 
and proper air intakes and outlets. 

Bulk shipments 

In discussing the handling of the apple crop, no refer- 
ence has been made to bulk shipment. In the Middle 
West, particularly in the Ozark and in the Missouri 
regions, bulk shipments sometimes represent over one-half 
of the crop. Ben Davis and Grimes lend themselves to 
this method of handling. Bulk shipments are important 
from Colorado and New Mexico. 

In bulk handling, the apples are loaded loose into cars 
previously bedded with straw. It should be remembered 
that these apples are strictly commercial and enter into 
competition with barreled stock. As might be expected, 
there is little uniformity in the quality of the fruit mar- 
keted in this way. There is an urgent need for standard- 
ization along such lines. 



CHAPTER XV 

MARKETING AND STORAGE 

Both distribution and marketing are of prime import- 
ance in the commercial apple industry. It is not sufficient 
that the apple-grower shall spray, prune and cultivate his 
trees so that they will produce high-class fruit, but he 

' must familiarize himself with the best systems of market- 

' ing in order that his crop may be disposed of in the most 
satisfactory manner. 

Much has been said of the cooperative marketing system 
for fruits. Little has been done in developing this system, 
however, in the apple regions outside of the Pacific North- 

1 west. The eastern and middle western growers handle 
their production largely by consignment, through brokers, 
or sell directly to cash buyers. The apple-grower employs 
three common methods in disposing of his crop: (1) sell- 

'ing on consignment; (2) selling packed or graded fruit 
to cash buyers, or selling the entire crop in the orchard 
to " lump " buyers ; (3) selling under a cooperative system. 

[ 

! SELLING ON CONSIGNMENT 

^ Many growers have practiced consignment with entire 
'satisfaction, although this method of marketing has been 

the subject of some criticism. The personal element is 
'the determining factor. There are commission firms of 

the highest integrity whose services and expert knowledge 

313 



314 The Commercial Apple Industry 

of marketing can be made invaluable to the producer. A 
grower should carefully investigate the standing of the 
firm with which he proposes to deal. 

Cash sales are desirable but in years of heavy produc- 
tion and for the grower with miscellaneous and odd lot 
shipments, consignment is sometimes the only alternative. 
Not infrequently growers have established relations with 
certain commission merchants and employ these same firms 
year after year. 

SEI.LING TO CASH BUYERS. 

At present the cash buyer is the dominant figure in the 
marketing of the commercial apple crop. The legitimate 
cash buyer performs a necessary service in the distribution 
of the commercial crop, lie buys for an established trade 
and requires only a limited margin to insure a fair profit. 
In most instances he is an experienced salesman, always 
seeking to develop and open new markets. The cash buyer 
is a figure of growing importance in the apple industry. 

Much has been said with reference to the popular i 
demand " direct to the consumer." The fact remains, [ 
however, that the middle-man performs an important | 
service in the distribution of any crop. It must be re- 
membered, furthermore, that even the present cooperative | 
selling organizations sell largely through brokers or to cash j 
buyers on the market but operate in such circumstances 
as to secure more consideration than individuals can com-l 
mand. Buyers must have profits commensurate with the! 
risk and sufiicient to cover their overhead, and if they lose 
in one operation they quite naturally must receive suf- 
ficient profit to make up for such losses. 

The best and most satisfactory system for dealing with 



Marketing and Storage 315 

the cash buyer is to sell a certain grade of a variety at a 
cash price, f, o. b. the car. The importance of contracts 
should be emphasized even in cash sales. Verbal contracts 
permit much misconstruction and misunderstanding. It 
is always important that definite specifications should be 
drawn up as to the grade and variety of the fruit, time 
of delivery and method of inspection. Much can be gained 
by a thorough understanding between the buyer and the 
seller. Contracts are particularly indispensable when 
business operations are conducted at long range. 

The lump-sum cash buyer. 

Under this head is described the system of selling the 
entire crop on the trees to a buyer who packs and grades 
out the fruit, assuming entire risk in handling the crop. 
In general such a system of marketing is very unsatisfac- 
tory. It is obvious that the buyer's risk is necessarily 
great and that he therefore must necessarily have a large 
margin of profit. There is probably no other region in 
which this system of marketing fruit is so widely prac- 
ticed as in the Watsonville district or the Pajaro Valley of 
California. Lump-sum buying strikes a blow at the com- 
munity spirit by checking the development of a high 
standard for the output of a region. 

Tree-run cash buyer. 

Throughout certain regions and particularly in western 
Xew York, the tree-run buyer plays an important part in 
the marketing of the apple crop. Under this system the 
cash buyer offers a certain price a barrel for the grower's 
entire crop, culls and cider stock sometimes excluded. 
The buyer then grades and packs out the fruit. Growers 



316 The Commercial Apple Industry 

of rather low-grade fruit are attracted to this system of 
selling. However, the tree-run system of handling fruit 
does not encourage the highest cultural methods and tends 
to lower the grade of fruit produced. It should be dis- 
couraged. 

COOPERATIVE METHODS OF SELLING 

Cooperative handling and marketing has been most 
widely attempted in the western states, both in the distri- 
bution of citrus and deciduous fruits. Confronted with 
the problems of rapidly increasing production, extreme 
distance from market and high land values, the western 
fruit-grower has realized the precariousness of highly 
specialized farming and has felt the need of organization 
and cooperation more keenly than the eastern growers. 
Heavy investment has made it impossible for him to turn 
to other types of farming, and it has been in periods of 
desperation when prices failed to meet the cost of pro- 
duction that most comprehensive cooperative movements 
have been inaugurated. It should not be understood that 
failure has constantly followed in the foot-steps of the 
western fruit-grower, for years of good prices and large 
yields have brought excellent returns. The western 
grower in many instances has devoted his entire capital to 
the production of fruit. Naturally he resorts to every 
means within his power to stabilize and organize the indus- 
try on a profitable basis. When a period of low prices 
prevails in the East or Middle West, the growers of these 
regions having more diversified farms give less attention 
to the growing and marketing of their apple crop and 
more attention to their other enterprizes. 

One of the largest cooperative fruit marketing organiza- 



MarTceiing and Storage 317 

tions in the United States, known as the California Fruit 
Growers' Exchange, was organized in 1905 for the purpose 
of solving the complex marketing and distributing prob- 
lems confronting the citrus-growers of southern California. 
A similar organization exists among the Florida citrus- 
growers and at present among the Georgia peach-growers. 
Each of these organizations controls more than half of the 
fruit production of its respective region. 

It must not be understood that the apple industry is 
exactly analogous with either the citrus or peach industry. 
The citrus region of southern California is extremely 
compact; the same is true of the Florida citrus district. 
These two sections embrace comparatively few counties, 
yet represent in production nearly the entire citrus crop 
of the United States. The Georgia peaches are among the 
first to reach the market and competition is limited largely 
by the production from Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. 
The apple crop which comes on the market at about the 
same time from many regions represents a different 
problem. 

Cooperative handling of apples has played a very 
important part in the industry of the western irrigated 
sections, notably in the Grand Valley of Colorado, in the 
Yakima, Wenatchee and Spokane valleys of Washington ; 
in the Hood River Valley of Oregon and in certain dis- 
tricts of Idaho. It has been difficult to follow the growth 
and development of each of the many cooperative organiza- 
tions in the Northwest. Some have persisted and enlarged 
their scope, while others have been abandoned. Many 
more have failed than have succeeded. Very few of the 
cooperative marketing organizations which were operative 
a few years ago are in existence to-day. There is always 



318 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the inherent individualism of farmers as a class to be con- 
sidered and also their strona; inclination toward inde- 
pendent operation of their own business affairs. 

There can be little argument advanced against coopera- 
tion among fruit-grov/ers, the question being as to just 
how far this cooperation will extend and what form it 
will assume. The following are some of the necessary 
elements for successful cooperative marketing: 

(1) There must be a community spirit in the region 
which will prompt growers to act cooperatively. 

(2) There must be more or less compactness and con- 
centration of planting. Growers operating scattering 
orchards at a considerable distance from one another can 
seldom be brought together under a cooperative plan. 
There must be a sufficient quantity of fruit produced 
within a more or less limited region, in order that the crop 
may be handled economically under cooperation. Many 
cooperative organizations have failed on account of excess- 
ive overhead expense. 

(3) A desirable membership must be secured. One 
danger with newly organized associations is that in their 
eagerness for new members they are likely to acquire a 
quantity of undesirable fruit which must be handled by the 
association. Rather than lose members and political 
prestige, the management very often fails to enforce grad- 
ing rules and thereby permits the low-grade fruit to deter- 
mine the selling price. 

In trying to bring too many growers under one associa- 
tion, the organizers lose sight of the fact that only a small 
percentage of the apple crop of the United States is pro- 
duced in any one state or region. The advantage of 
controlling a large percentage of the tonnage in any one 



Marketing and Storage 319 

district is not to be questioned, but too great importance 
should not be attached to large memberships, particularly 
if thej are indiscriminately selected. From a practical 
standpoint, the best organizations are those which have 
gro\vn gradually in membership -and which have been 
careful to exclude the grower of poor fruit. By having 
only the cream of the output of any particular region, the 
best returns are obtained for the growers. 

(4) Distance from market is another important factor 
which must be considered for successful cooperation. An 
apple-grower situated close to market who has exception- 
ally high quality fruit, for which he has built up a special 
market, will be less inclined to abandon his special trade 
for membership in an association. On the other hand, 
growers in more remote regions have favored cooperation 
since it sets up machinery to reli-eve them of the entire 
problem of marketing their own fruit for which they have 
neither the experience nor training. In addition, it en- 
ables them to have personal representatives in distant 
markets. 

Form of organization for cooperative associations. 

There are two general forms for organizing cooperative 
associations: (1) stock corporation ; (2) non-stock system. 

Of these the non-stock system is the better. Eather 
than sell stock and maintain a private corporation which 
may drift into the hands of a few of the largest stock- 
holders, it is better that each contributing member should 
cast a single vote in a purely non-profit or cooperative 
society. The voting power under this system might be 
made to vary according to the amount of fruit shipped, but 
as a rule the one vote a member system is most satisfactory 



320 The Commercial Apple Industry 

and equitable. In emphasizing the advantage of the non- 
stock system, it should be stated that such organizations 
enjoy special benefits under legislation fostering coopera- 
tive effort among farmers. The activities of private stock 
corporations may be curtailed by legislation designed to 
prevent operations in restraint of trade. 

Good business management is one of the prime prere- 
quisites for the establishment of a successful cooperative 
organization. It is obvious that a sufficiently large ton- 
nage of fruit must be handled to warrant the employment 
of an experienced and competent manager. The board of 
directors should exercise supervisory powers and should be 
thoroughly in touch with the business operation of the or- 
ganization. Too often association managers have been se- 
lected on account of their political activity rather than for 
their training and experience in marketing fruit. It is 
highly important that this manager should have ability as 
a salesman ; otherwise the advantages of cooperative selling 
may be lost. 

Good business practices should be employed. A proper 
accounting and auditing system should be installed and 
those handling the funds should be bonded. It should be 
possible for the directorate and management to know the 
exact condition of the business at all times. 

If a cooperative organization is to enjoy stability, its 
members must be bound under a specified contract to sell 
their fruit through the association. One-year contracts 
are usually satisfactory, although they may be made for 
a longer term. On joining the association, each member 
should be required to sign a contract whereby he agrees to 
sell his fruit through the association. This contract must 



Marketing and Storage 321 

be legally binding. It is obvious that no well-organized 
selling system can be developed unless the management 
knows approximately the amount of tonnage which it will 
be called on to handle. 

Pooling. 

The practice of pooling the fruit of different members 
of an association and selling it under one brand has devel- 
oped widely in the West. Uniformity in the quality of 
the fruit in each pool is an absolute necessity to the suc- 
cessful operation of such a system; otherwise the poor 
fruit will bring down the price of the good and result in 
dissatisfaction among members. In other words, the most 
successful pools can only be brought about when the fruit 
of the contributing members has been grown with similar 
cultural methods and under similar climatic and soil 
conditions. 

The only criticism which may be brought against pool- 
ing is that it may penalize the grower of exceptionally 
fine fruit. This may be avoided, however, if careful grad- 
ing rules are adopted and unbiased inspection is enforced. 
Under a successfully operated pool, the grade of all fruit 
may be raised rather than lowered, thus insuring the high- 
est market price. Another distinct advantage under the 
pooling system is in the protection which it affords an 
individual grower against the sudden rise or fall in prices. 
One shipment of fruit may be damaged in shipment, or 
may be sold at a figure lower than later market prices. 
This loss distributed over a large membership would not 
be felt, but with an individual it might be disastrous. All 
fruit cannot be placed on the market at the same time 



3*32 The Commercial Apple Industry 

and in effecting successful distribution the association may 
employ the pooling system very satisfactorily in securing 
an average high price for its fruit. 

The central packing-house which is playing so import- 
ant a part in the cooperative handling and pooling of fruit 
has been given separate treatment in Chapter XIV. 

Purchase of supplies. 

A most direct benefit to be derived from cooperative 
organizations, and one which appeals very strongly to 
growers, is the purchase of necessary supplies in large 
quantities at low prices. This factor very often proves 
the tie that holds the membership together in the face of 
adversity, since it offers a concrete example of the advant- 
age of dealing in quantities. Spray materials, boxes or 
barrels, and all supplies necessary in the production and 
marketing of apples, can very often be purchased in quan- 
tity by the association at a great saving to its members. 
In many instances these materials are advanced to the 
grower in the form of credit, his crop having previously 
been signed up with the association as security for such 
advances. A double saving may result from the ability 
of the association to buy materials on a cash basis and 
extend credit to its members, by using their combined 
security as a basis for lower interest rates on borrowed 
capital than the individual might be obliged to pay. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Better distribution is the keynote in all successful mar- 
keting efforts. The methods by which the grower gets 
his fruit into commercial channels have already been dis- 
cussed. In studying the machinery of distribution, there 



Marketing and Storage 323 

are four fairly well defined factors: (1) The commission- 
man; (2) the broker; (3) the carlot operator; (4) the 
carlot distributor. 

Commissicm-man. 

The commission-man is usually allowed 5 to 10 per 
cent of the gross sales for his services. His incentive for 
making satisfactory returns is his desire for retaining the 
business of his patron. As emphasized elsewhere, the suc- 
cess of this system of marketing depends entirely on the 
personal element. It is obvious that the commission mer- 
chant must know in advance of the quantity of goods he 
will be called on to handle. Therefore, if this method is 
employed, arrangements should be made as far in advance 
as possible. 

The broker. 

The legitimate apple broker is one of- the important 
factors in the distribution of the commercial crop. His 
function is to negotiate sales between dealers or between 
growers and dealers. The commission-man handles the 
consignment, keeps all accounts and deducts his commis- 
sion. The broker does not handle the funds, but receives 
a stipulated commission, say $10 to $15 a car for his 
services. 

Theoretically, the broker represents both the seller and 
buyer. He is supposed to advise the seller as to general 
marketing conditions, or in other words take the place of 
a personal representative in the market. He is supposed 
also to help in making equitable settlement in case of dis- 
putes between contracting parties. The personal equation 
enters very largely into this situation. The grower would 



324 The Commercial Apple Industry 

do w?ll to inform himself as to the integrity of the firm 
with which he proposes to deal, and by establishing rela- 
tions with reliable firms be able to insure best results. 

The usual method of procedure in dealing with the 
broker is as follows: The seller having a carload of a 
certain grade of a variety will advise his broker of the 
fact and of the price which he desires. The broker will 
undertake to place the car and if successful will communi- 
cate with the seller, instructing him to forward the fruit. 
This method of handling really amounts to an f, o. b. sale, 
permission being given by the grower for inspection at 
destination. In case of a misunderstanding over grades, 
the broker is in a position to effect equitable settlement. 
The grower bills his fruit to the broker or to the buyer, , 
attaching a sight draft to the bill of lading which is sent 
to a bank designated by the buyer. After inspection on' 
arrival, the buyer lifts the draft through his banker,, 
thereby effecting a direct settlement with the seller. 

Carloi operator. 

The carlot operator plays an important part in the 
distribution of the commercial apple crop. He is usually 
represented in important regions of production by cash 
buyers, who contract fruit on his account. The carlot 
operator may sell again in carload lots, may place the 
fruit in storage on his own account or may distribute it to 
the jobber or retailer. The amount of business handled by 
carlot operators may vary from a very few cars to several 
hundred or even thousands, depending somewhat on the 
field for distribution. The carlot operator for a citj with 
a more or less limited field may be able to distribute suc- 
cessfully only a few cars. A large operator with head- 






Marheting and Storage 325 

quarters in JSTew York City may distribute his purchases 
all over the world. The carlot operator usually has a 
certain trade built up in a given region and buys to supply' 
this trade. His business resembles that of a wholesale 
groceryman who carefully gauges the demands of his cus- 
tomers and buys to fill their needs. 

iCarlot distributors. 

^ In recent years, various forms of distributing agencies 
-have been established for the purpose of accomplishing in 
•a measure for the whole country what a broker or commis- 
'Sion merchant does for his immediate city or vicinity. By 
■handling a large volume of business, such agencies are en- 
abled to build up a competent sales organization at a fairly 
•low overhead. Cooperative marketing associations or in- 
'dividual growers frequently employ such selling agencies 
^usually on a flat fee, a package or occasionally on a per- 
centage basis. For an additional charge the sales agency 
sometimes does the necessary warehousing. 

This type of sales service has many advantages. While 
[^rowers or growers' organizations are usually obliged to 
feign up their crop in advance of the season, they are given 
ihe privilege of confirming or rejecting orders as secured 
oy the selling agency. Not infrequently carlot distribu- 
I ors help finance the crop by making advances to individual 
growers during the growing season. 

FIELD OF DISTRIBUTION 

''foreign markets. 

The extension and development of foreign markets is a 
)opular subject for consideration. The extent to which 
his trade may be developed is of course largely a matter 



326 The Commercial Apple Industry 

of conjecture. If the high quality apple approaches a 
luxury for many persons of this country, it indeed repre- 
sents a luxury for most foreign consumers. When trans- 
portation, duty, insurance, interior freight and duty are 
added to the original cost, the American apple can appeal 
only to the well-to-do. Despite this, exportations to for- 
eign markets in some years have approximated 10 per 
cent of the total commercial apple crop of this country. 
While the amount of export trade varies considerably wi^h 
the size of the crop and with general marketing conditions, 
a study of the figures indicates a very considerable normal 
increase in exportation of fresh apples in the past ten 
years. 

The United Kingdom has always been the principal 
export market, absorbing normally over 80 per cent of all 
export trade. Australia and even oriental markets have 
been studied more recently with the view to effecting 
wider distribution of the apple crop. These latter markets 
are as yet of little importance in comparison with the 
heavy European demand. 

Business relations at long range are sometimes unsatis- 
factory. But if this difficulty may be overcome, export 
fields are promising. If this country, with its abundance 
of fresh food stuffs, can absorb over twenty million barrels 
of commercial apples annually, it seems reasonable thati 
foreign trade, particularly with thickly populated Euro- 
pean countries, will afford an excellent outlet for at least 
10 per cent or more of the total production. Such anf 
outlet will always relieve the strain on local markets and! 
will act as a safety valve for the excess supplies which 
might otherwise glut domestic trade. ; 

Barreled and boxed apples were in general about equally^ 






^fei^il 



Plate XX. — Sizing and grading machines. Zipper, Sizing ma- 
chine with diverging spiral rollers. Middle, This machine sizes 
the fruit through cups which enlarge as the belt moves along. 
Lower. Grading machine equipped with sizing belts made of linked 
rings. A common type used in many sections. 



Marketing and Storage 327 

represented in the export trade of the United States for 
1919. Of the barreled apples, the Baldwin and Northern 
Spy from New York and New England, York Imperial and 
Ben Davis from the Shenandoah-Cumberland region and 
Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin from the Piedmont 
of Virginia, have been the leading export varieties. Of 
the western boxed apples. Yellow Newtown, Winesap, 
Jonathan, Esopus and White Pearmain have been the most 
prominent varieties for export. 

Improved distribution within the United States. 

The greatest opportunity in the field of distribution is 
in the extension and development of domestic trade. 
Attention has been called to the fact that the home orchards 
generally throughout the United States have been dying 
out and that the commercial industry is being centralized 
in a few favored regions. The line of distinction between 
commercial and non-commercial production is being more 
closely drawn. The consumers are demanding a higher 
class product and on being furnished with this are increas- 
ing their demand. 

Not many years ago before the installation of general 
cold storage facilities, the trade in small towns and even 
the larger cities was supplied from the cellar of the gen- 
eral farmer who grew a few more apples in his home 
orchard than he had need for. These orchards in most 
instances have been going backward ; the trees are 
nnsprayed, the fruit is inferior in quality and unattractive. 
Consumers are coming to demand a better product. It is 
in supplying the demand in these smaller towms and 
cities that the commercial apple-grower will find the great- 
est opportunity for better distribution. 



328 The Commercial Apple Industry 

The secret of success in the distribution of the California 
orange crop has been its sale in every cross-road village in 
the country. The production and sale of oranges in recent 
years has increased much more rapidly than has popula- 
tion. By organized effort, wider distribution into the 
smaller markets, the orange-growers have been marketing 
a constantly increasing production. The same may he 
accomplished by the apple-growers and shippers if they 
will employ similar methods of advertisement and dis- 
tribution. 

Wliether the growers market their apples cooperatively, 
through private brokers or by private sales service, there 
must be campaigns of education and advertisement iu 
order to effect distribution. The futility of trying to work 
out broad comprehensive plans for distribution when each 
grower or shipper acts independently is evident. Such 
plans lend themselves best to cooperative effort. The bur- 
den of expense incident to the working out of better plans 
of distribution must be widely distributed in order that 
it will not fall too heavily on any one individual. 

The question of advertisement presents an interesting 
field. Rotable examples of the establishment of brands 
of commercial grades are seen in the efforts of different 
associations in the Pacific Northwest. By assessing each 
box sold under a given brand with a small charge for 
advertisement, large sums are secured to carry out adver- 
tising campaigns. By limiting the varieties sold under a 
given brand to those of high dessert quality, by including: 
only the highly desirable sizes and zealously enforcing 
grading rules, shippers can develop a brand of superb 
marketable quality. Whether such a system can be recom- 
mended for general adoption remains to be seen. Such 



Marheting and Storage 339 

advertisement has gone far in effecting better distribution 
for the northwestern boxed apples. 

Physical handling. 

The same attention should be given to bettei physical 
handling of apples as to better cultural methods. A 
grower can not afford to devote his best energies in pro- 
ducing high quality apples only to subject them to the 
abuse of improper physical handling. The importance of 
careful orchard practices with reference to picking and 

' packing and immediate storage have been emphasized. 
In addition the apples must be transported in cars, must 
be handled in and out of storage and in all of these opera- 
tions much can be done to improve present methods. The 
development of new types of refrigerator cars, improved 

^ methods of car loading and ventilation are of vital import- 
ance to the apple-growers and shippers. 

J GRADES AND STANDARDS 

The movement for uniform grades and standards should 
be considered by every apple-grower. Probably no other 
phase of the marketing problem is receiving greater atten- 
tion at this time than that of standard grade and pack, 
i Certainly no other movement can do more in stabilizing the 
apple industry. 

It is generally agreed that the standardization of grade 
and pack is a governmental function. There is, however, 
;a variance of opinion as to methods of enforcement. State 
_and federal legislation has been formulated with the view 
^towards promulgating certain definite rules which shall 
j-jpecify the character of fruit to be sold under established 



330 The Commercial Apple Industry 

standard grades. These rules are intended to act as a 
standard of measure, whereby the buyer may judge the 
character and the contents of the closed package of apples. 
In other words, the label on the package of apples is to 
be made to tell the truth. The difficulties of promulgating, 
a set of rules which will please every one or even a major- 
ity is at the outset a difficult problem. Furthermore, oncel 
promulgated it is exceedingly difficult to secure the enforce-j 
ment of such a set of rules. 

Standard ^package. 

Obviously the first step in standardization is the estab- 
lishment of uniform packages. This has already been 
effected to a great extent by the adoption of the dual stand- 
ard, i. e. the standard barrel and the standard box. Per- 
sons are accustomed to think of commercial apples in 
terms of barrels and boxes. In a geographic way, line of 
distinction between barrel apple-producing areas and box 
apple-producing areas has been closely drawn. For Col- 
orado and states west, the box is the almost exclusive pack- 
age, while for the eastern and middle western apple crop 
the barrel is almost exclusively used. 

From time to time different packages have been intro- 
duced, but their popularity has been more or less tempor- 
ary. Various crates have been recommended for western 
low-grade apples and in certain seasons a considerable 
portion of the New Yprk crop has moved out in bushel 
baskets. The five-eighths-bushel hamper is very popular 
in the early apple regions of New Jersey and Delaware. 
In many ways the smaller package enjoys a distinct advant- 
age, and while the barrel will probably remain the stand- 
ard package for eastern and middle western apples, it is 



MarTceting and Storage 331 

not improbable that the growers will find it advisable to 
market a part of their crop in smaller packages in order 
to attract the smaller purchaser. 

The bulk handling of apples should receive separate 
consideration. In normal years, at least half of the pro- 
duction of the Ozark and the Missouri River region is sold 
in bulk. Recently bulk handling has featured in the move- 
ment of the apple crop from Colorado and Xew Mexico. 
Middle western growers maintain that the bulk handling 
of a certain grade of apples is an efficient system since 
it enables them to sell a portion of their crop to a class 
of trade which would otherwise be unable to buy commer- 
cial apples. The middle western grower further main- 
tains that after carefully bedding a car with straw, he is 
able to load apples in bulk without severe bruising. It 
must be remembered that this bulk movement from the 
West is essentially competitive with the barreled crop. 

Many state laws have been enacted looking towards the 
establishment of uniform grades and standards for com- 
mercial apples. For the most part, these laws are inac- 
tive on account of lack of funds for their enforcement. 
Washington has devoted as much effort along these lines 
as probably any other state, unless it is New York. The 
Washing-ton grading laws provide for an annual meeting of 
'■ apple-growers, at which time uniform grade specifications 
•are adopted for the ensuing year. In other words, no 
( hard and fast rules are laid down for a period of years and 
'the specifications are subject to change each year at the 
majority will of the growers. Obviously, a law which 
would be applicable for all states, and furthermore which 
acould be enforced, would have to be rather general. Such 
;a law, however, would tend to keep poorly graded fruit 



332 The Commercial Apple Industry 

out of commercial channels and would, therefore, work to 
the benefit of the strictly commercial growers in the highly 
intensive regions. It is not criminal to grow low-grade 
fruit, but such fruit should not be misbranded or should 
not sell under false colors to the detriment of the producer 
of high-grade apples. 

The question of " facing " the barrel pack is one over 
which much discussion has arisen. " Facing " refers to 
the practice of placing select apples on the top layer in 
order to give a good appearance to the pack. This does 
not enter into the problem of box standards, since inspec- 
tion may be made at the top, bottom, or side of the box. 
While it may be legitimate to arrange the top layer so as 
to give a neat appearance to the barrel pack, a real stand- 
ard grading law would surely require the contents of the 
barrel to be uniform. 

The project of establishing uniform grades and stand- 
ards enlists much active support and at the same time is 
the subject of much controversy. Generally speaking, 
every concerted move towards a standardization of grade 
and pack will work to the benefit of the strictly commer- 
cial apple-grower and will serve to make a closer distinc- 
tion between the commercial and non-commercial crop. 
For that reason every conscientious effort in working out 
uniform grades and standards seems meritorious. 

Inspection at point of origin. 

Many prominent apple-growers are insistent on govern- 
ment inspection at point of origin. A common reason 
for low returns to the grower has been the poor condition 
of the fruit at the time of its arrival at market. Further- 
more, there are always changes in transport to be reckoned 



Marheting and Storage 333 

with. Federal and state governments may be potent fac- 
tors in controlling evils which exist under the present sys- 
tem of fruit inspection. 

Some apple-growers think inspection at point of origin 
should entirely supplant that at the place of arrival. In 
other words, it is maintained that all sales should be made 
f. 0. b. and that the purchaser should assume the risk 
after the apples have been shipped. While inspection at 
point of origin is unquestionably a highly desirable step 
and will go far toward better understanding between 
grower and dealer^ it seems hardly probable that the buyer 
will assume all risk incident to the transportation and 
delivery of the fruit without a rather large margin com- 
mensurate with the risk. 

The report of an unbiased government inspector would 
be of great value to any one interested in the purchase or 
sale of apples. Such inspection at point of origin and 
particularly at place of destination would establish the 
damage, if any in transit, and would do much in effecting 
satisfactory business dealings. If the shipper could be 
reliably informed as to the exact condition in which his 
fruit arrives at destination, it would materially aid in 
studies affecting proper handling methods. 

STORAGE 

The storing of apples is intimately associated with prob- 
lems of marketing and yet it is a subject of such complex- 
ity as not to permit of complete treatment without thor- 
ough scientific discussion involving the practice of storage- 
house construction and methods of management. Only 
brief consideration can be given to storage in this work, 
however. 



334 The Commercial Apple Industry 

The effects of improved storage have been far reaching. 
It is obvious that a practice which will prolong the market- 
ing period of any seasonal commodity will have a great 
influence in its distribution. The possibility of storing 
fruit has also had an important influence on our leading 
commercial apple varieties. Formerly only a few of the 
very late keeping sorts were available for distribution dur- 
ing the late winter and early spring months. 

Under the present system of handling through storage, 
it is possible to prolong the life of more delicate and 
higher quality varieties and in this way greatly stimulate 
the demand for apples late in the season. The greater I 
part of the commercial apple crop will always be placed i 
in storage for periods of varying length and a general I 
knowledge of the principles involved is of much import- , 
ance. The difference between common and cold storage ! 
is generally understood. The former method depends on » 
natural atmospheric temperatures and the latter on arti- 
ficial cooling. 

Life processes of the apple do not cease at the time of 
picking and it is important to retard these processes by 
getting the fruit into storage with as little delay as possible. 
A day or two of exposure to the warm sun may shorten 
the life of the fruit very materially. Emphasis has 
already been placed on the desirability of transferring the 
fruit from the orchard to the packing-house as quickly 
after picking as possible. 

Local vs. distance storage. 

Cold-storage plants were formerly situated near the 
larger markets. In recent years, however, there has been 
a growing tendency towards the establishment of cold- 



Marketing and Storage 335 

storage plants in the regions of production. Storage at 
the point of origin has one distinct advantage. By keep- 
ing the fruit here the shipper or grower is not committed 
to any particular market, but may hold his fruit or ship 
to such market as he may see fit. By holding a portion of 
the crop in regions of production, the strain on transporta- 
tion facilities at harvest time is very materially reduced. 
Storage for at least half the crop, particularly in areas of 
large production, seems to be recognized as a necessary 
provision. If the grov^^er or shipper has a well established 
market, it is advisable for him to store his fruit in or 
near that market rather than hold it at point of origin. 
In this way his product is available for quick delivery 
under favorable marketing conditions in quantities to meet 
the demand and is not exposed to the dangers incident to 
traffic. I 

As stated above, cold-storage plants are for the most 
part situated in the eastern states. Large plants are 
located through western New York and provide excellent 
facilities for handling the barreled crop of this region. 
Here it is possible for the grower to haul his fruit imme- 
diately to the cold storage. At the same time he enjoys the 
advantage of being in close touch with the eastern market- 
ing conditions. 

Common storage. 

Common storage has as yet played only a small part in 
the handling of the eastern apple crop. In the Pacific 
Northwest, however, this form predominates and is an 
important factor in the handling of the crop from that 
region. 

No attempt will be made to discuss in detail the relative 



336 The Commercial Apple Industry 

merits of different types of common storage construction. 
The success in managing in the early fall depends on atten- 
tion given to the opening of vents and doors during the 
night and closing of them during the day. If the storage- 
rooms are not kept separate from the packing-rooms, the 
purpose of the cooling system is largely defeated. 

Small storage plants on individual farms or in connec- 
tion with community organizations are becoming more and 
more common. By having separate rooms for packing or 
using the basement only for storage, a combination pack- 
ing- and storage-house may be constructed economically. 
The grower may then feel greater sense of security in 
knowing that he will have several weeks or even months in 
which to dispose of his fruit. Common storage can never 
supplant cold-storage and its efficiency will vary some- , 
what with the season. As an economical and somewhat 
more temporary method of prolonging the marketing pe- i 
riod of commercial apples, it is serving an important need. 

Handling and cultural methods as relating to storage. 

There is a growing belief that general health and vigor 
of the trees has a greater influence on the keeping qualities 
of fruit than has been generally recognized. However, 
the development of scalds and spots and the deterioration 
in storage is most frequently traced back to over-maturity 
or under-maturity or rough handling of the fruit. One 
advantage in home storage is that the evidences of these 
troubles may be brought home more forcibly to the grower. 

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN MARKETING 

While the greatest effort in improving marketing condi- 
tions has been exerted by the growers and shippers them- 



Marketing and Storage 337 

selves, very important steps have been taken in this direc- 
tion by various agencies in the United States Department 
of Agriculture, notably the Bureau of Crop Estimates and 
the Bureau of Markets. Certain phases of the market 
ing problem, such as inspection, the issuance of crop fore- 
casts and market reports, lend themselves best to govern- 
mental agencies. It is impracticable for the individual or 
even groups of individuals successfully to study all phases 
of marketing V70rk. 

Crop estimates. 

The need for reliable crop forecasts is imperative if the 
grower is to determine the price which he might reasonably 
expect for his fruit. The perishability of the apple as 
compared with more stable crops accentuates this need. It 
is obvious that the government is best fitted to carry on 
such investigations and can, by the issuance of reliable 
forecasts, render an important service to the commercial 
apple-grower. 

Market and storage reports. 

The second very important service which properly can 
be rendered by a governmental agency is the issuance of 
reports showing the distribution of the crop. By compre- 
hensive investigation it is possible for the government to 
issue reports showing the point of origin and destination 
of each carload of commercial apples. Shippers and 
growers alike will be enabled to use this information in 
seeking out untouched markets. Since the keynote in 
better marketing is the extension of distribution to small 
towns and cities, it may be seen that the result of such 



338 The Commercial Apple Industry 

investigation will be an invaluable guide to better distribu- 
tion. 

The value of unbiased market reports which will afford 
the growers and shippers alike the benefit of telegraphic 
news service as relating to the price and marketing condi- 
tions of apples in the different centers is already recog- 
nized. 

COOPEEATION VS. INDIVIDUAL EFFORT 

The government has at all times encouraged and fos- 
tered cooperative spirit among growers. Despite this co- 
operative effort, it must be recognized that by the issuance 
and dissemination of reliable crop forecasts and reports, 
and by its market news and inspection service, the govern- 
ment is making the individual more independent and more 
able to conduct his business than formerly. Just what 
the effect of these divergent tendencies will be remains to 
be seen. For the exceptional grower, the man with un- 
usual business acumen, it may mean that he will be en- 
abled to conduct his individual business independently to 
his greatest satisfaction. On the whole, however, the bene- 
fits of cooperation are not to be denied and will doubtless 
continue to play an increasingly important part in mar- 
keting. 



CHAPTER XVI 
YIELDS 

Good yields are absolutely essential to insure profit 
from any orchard enterprise. The most detailed care may 
be given to an orchard, but if it is made up of poor yield- 
ing varieties or if the soil or climate is not suitable for 
production, good care is only time and money wasted. 

In the first place, it is important to secure good yielding 
varieties. Most standard varieties of the present day 
yield fairly well, but many new and untried yet widely 
advertised sorts are very poor annual bearers. Ben Davis, 
Baldwin, Winesap, Stayman, Jonathan, York, Rhode 
Island Greening, and Rome Beauty are old and standard 
varieties, the high yielding qualities of which are well 
known. Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower are 
heavy bearing in certain sections, particularly in the 
Watsonville district of California. In Virginia the light 
bearing Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and the 
Arkansas (Black Twig) are not being planted as extens- 
ively as the more prolific York Imperial and Stayman. 
Among earlier varieties, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, 
Gravenstein and Maiden Blush are classed as reliable 
bearers. Yellow Transparent does well in some sections, 
but yields light crops in other regions. Northern Spy 
requires a score of years to come into profitable bearing, 
while the famous Delicious, despite its many excellent 
qualities, in some sections is only a moderate cropper. 

339 



340 The Commercial Apple Industry 

When trees of good yielding varieties are brought to 
bearing age, careful record should be kept of annual yields, 
particularly acre yields. One hundred barrels of commer- 
cial fruit to the acre is a good average although trees well 
cared for can often be made to average 200 barrels under 
normal growing conditions. If an orchard is only 
averaging from 50 to 100 barrels to the acre (many do not 
average 50 barrels to the acre), care should be taken to 
find out the limiting factor. Light yields may be due to 
a lack of nitrogen or other element in the soil, to lack 
of pollination, or to poor orchard management. Improper 
pruning, thinning, spraying or soil management are as 
often the cause of low yields as the variety of the trees, 
the season or natural fertility of the soil. Many theories 
are advanced relative to the development of fruit-buds 
and fruiting wood, but it is difficult to generalize on this 
subject. 

Good orchard management is for the purpose of secur- 
ing heavy yields and no study as to the cause of high or 
low yields would be complete without a consideration of 
practically every orchard operation. In analyzing the 
cause of low yields, one should consider first soil fertility. 
The growing of leguminous cover-crops or the application 
of such fertilizers as nitrate of soda may be necessary to 
maintain healthy normal growth of the trees. Thinning 
will tend to stimulate annual bearing as well as greatly to 
increase the amount of market quality fruit of any year. 

Pruning should be considered in relation to its effect 
on yields. Many advocate summer pruning for fruit. 
Under certain conditions it probably stimulates fruit pro- 
duction, but it has not met with wide favor generally. 
Moderate annual pruning in the dormant season is the 



Yields 341 

best practice. Thinning and fertilization are much 
neglected and this accounts for many of the low yielding 
orchards. Results are not secured by performing one 
orchard operation thoroughly and neglecting another. 
Proper pruning, spraying, thinning and an abundance of 
available plant-food should insure large commercial crops 
under normal conditions. 

In studying yield, one should consider not only the per- 
formances of individual trees or orchards in a given region, 
but more particularly the average yield on well managed 
orchards typical of the region. Soil fertility and good 
orchard management do not entirely determine yields. 
Unfavorable weather at blooming time occurs more fre- 
quently in some regions than in others and very often 
greatly reduces annual yields. There are certain areas, 
particularly in the more mountainous parts of the country, 
where on the average one crop out of every four or five 
is wiped out or severely damaged by hail. It is easy to 
understand how the profits of good crop years may be 
almost wiped out by total failures in other years. 

In the Wenatchee district of the Xorthwest, a total fruit 
crop failure is unknown, while in regions like the Ozarks, 
the Ohio Valley and the Missouri River region, Michigan 
and in fact most eastern sections, very light crops and 
even failures are not infrequent. Most of these failures 
are due to frost damage, or to unfavorable weather at 
blooming time which prevents pollination. The frequency 
of light crops and failures is exceedingly important. 

For a period of ten years, the Xorthwest has had an 
average of nearly 80 per c6nt of a full apple crop, while 
for the same period Missouri, Illinois and the middle 
western states have had scarcely 50 per cent of an apple 



342 The Commercial Apple Industry 

crop. Michigan, N^ew York and New England have 
shown an average crop condition of about 5 to 10 per 
cent higher than the Central West, while the crop condi- 
tion in the Virginias has averaged 10 per cent higher 
than that of New York. New Jersey and Delaware usu- 
ally end the season with a condition of about 60 per cent, 
or 25 per cent less than the Northwest. Thus it is seen 
that the chances for a good crop are the greatest in the Far 
West and are next in the middle Atlantic states, third in 
New York and the northern states, and poorest in the 
Central West. The low average crop condition in the 
Central West is largely due to the damp and unfavorable 
weather which often occurs during blooming time to pre- 
vent pollination and a good set of fruit. 

The following table refers to western New York condi- 
tions and shows the average yield on about fifty commer-' 
cial orchards in each county over a series of five to eight 
years. Considerable care was taken in obtaining these 
figures in order that they might accurately represent the 
average performance of full bearing commercial orchards 
in western New York. The table does not include yields 
from unsprayed or neglected plantings, but represents the 
production of those orchards which are being cared for. 
It will be noted that Wayne County shows a larger per- 
centage of cull fruit than any other. This is largely due 
to the fact that Wayne County is the center of the dried 
apple industry and much of its fruit which would ordi- 
narily be barreled in other counties is used for drying 
purposes. The portion of the crop used for by-products 
varies considerably from year to year. 



Yields 



Table XIV 



343 



Table Showing Average Annual Yield on the Bearing Com- 
mercial Orchards of Western New York 





Barreled Yield. 


Cull Yield (Barrels). 


Counties. 


Per Acre. 


Per cent, of 
total yield. 


Per Acre. 


Per cent, of 
total yield. 


Wayne 

Ontario 

Monroe 

Orleans 

Niagara 


Bbl, 
73 
93 

85 
87 
81 
84 


% 
67 
79 
78 
77 
79 
76 


Bbl. 
37 
24 
24 

27 
22 
27 


% 
33 
21 
22 
23 
21 


All counties 


24 



The, average yield of apples of coinineTcial grade in 
western ISTew York is 84 barrels to the acre, while in the 
Wenatchee Valley of Washington it ^*s between 500 and 
600 boxes of packed fruit (IfiS to 200 barrels). The 
average yield for the Yakima Vallev is between 400 and 
500 boxes while that for the Hood River Valley is between 
250 and 400 boxes to the acre. The average yield in Idaho 
is between 300 and 400 boxes to the acre. In good crop 
years, the southern Idaho orchards yield nearly as well 
as those in the high producing valleys in Washington. 
However, Idaho's average is reduced on account of occa- 
sional crop failures in years of frost-injury. Killing 
frosts are not uncommon in New Mexico and Utah. 

In comparing these yields with those of eastern orchards, 
it should be remembered that the figures refer only to 
marketable fruit and do not include culls, the percentage 
of which is much lower in the ^Northwest than in most 
eastern regions where orchards are not given such intensive 
care. The average yield of 84 barrels to the acre for 
western New York is more than that throughout the East. 



344 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Taking one year with another most of the middle western 
orchards will not average over 50 barrels to the acre. 
Michigan orchards bear about as well as those in western 
ISTew York, while the Hudson Valley and New England 
trees average somewhat less in annual production. Yields 
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah region 
compare favorably with those of western JSTew York, while 
yields in the Piedmont of Virginia will average lighter, 
due to the greater prevalence of unfavorable weather con- 
ditions at blooming time and also to the fact that most 
of the orchards are mountainous and cultivation is seldom 
practiced. 

One point to be remembered in comparing northwestern 
yields with those of eastern orchards is that practically all 
yield records of the ISTorthwest were taken on trees from 
eight to fifteen years old, while in the East yield records 
were from trees from twenty to forty years old. On the 
other hand, there are about twice as many trees to the 
acre in the Northwest as in western New York and in most 
all other eastern regions with the exception of Delaware, 
the Ohio Valley, the Piedmont district of Virginia and 
Carolina and a few other limited regions where the trees 
are either of early varieties or have not as yet attained 
great size. Yields given for the Northwest, although for 
comparatively young trees, are very nearly a maximum for 
that region. As trees become older, some will necessarily 
be pulled out on account of close planting. Furthermore, 
under northwestern conditions trees attain full bearing at 
about ten or twelve years. 

The possibilities of any section may be determined by 
searching out the most successful growers and securing a 



Yields 345 

reliable record of yields in both good and bad years. Cer- 
tain growers in western New York have harvested 200 to 
300 barrels to the acre from their orchards for a series of 
several years. Such high yielding orchards may be found 
about Geneva, Brockport and other towns, but their num- 
ber is very few. In the Wenatchee Valley a few growers 
obtained as high an average as 1,000 boxes to the acre. 
Such yields usually occurred on Rome Beauty or Ben 
Davis orchards, however. The famous Watsonville dis- 
trict of California is another section where annual yields 
of 1,000 boxes to the acre are not uncommon on the heavy 
redwood soils of the Pajaro> Valley. Orchards which 
yield fruit in this amount in certain years are found 
throughout the Middle West, but it is very seldom that 
average yields approach this figure even in the most care- 
fully cared for orchards. 

In studying the yielding possibilities of any orchard, 
the following points should be considered: 

The size of the tree. — Relative size and vigor of the 
tree for a given age indicates the time required for trees 
to attain maturity in any given region. 

Soil conditions. — The nature of the soil should be 
noticed, whether or not it is heavy or light, weak or strong, 
and how well it is adapted to tree growth and fruit pro- 
duction. 

The frequency of frost-injury. — Regions are often so 
situated as to render them very susceptible to frost. Cer- 
tain areas in nearly all sections are particularly suscept- 
ible to frost damage. 

Unfavorable conditions at blooming time. — Not only 
frost but other unfavorable weather conditions often occur. 



346 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Cold wet weather which prevents pollination is largely re- 
sponsible for low yield in certain sections. The history 
of the region should be carefully noted in this regard. 

Total crop failures. — The number of crop failures in 
the last ten years in any locality should be carefully noted, 
for" it is reasonable to assvime that a like number will 
occur in the next ten years. This consideration is highly 
important and will also serve to avoid the danger of draw- 
ing too favorable conclusions from exceptional perform- 
ances of orchards in any particular year. 

Relative freedom from diseases and insect pests. — The 
probability of scab or bitter-rot infection should be noted 
or the presence of any destructive disease or insect which 
may greatly cut down the crop even after the fruit has set 
well. Bitter-rot sometimes injures crops in the Virginia 
Piedmont district. Severe infestations of codlin-moth late 
in the season often cut the crop in the dry or irrigated 
western districts. Cedar-rust frequently does heavy dam- 
age to the York Imperial crop of the Shenandoah Valley. 
Apple-blotch often greatly injures the apple crop of the 
Middle West, while the prevalence of apple-scab renders 
the market quality of the apple crop of New York and 
Michigan uncertain. Every region has certain troubles, 
but it is well to be on the lookout for them and to note 
the success with which they are being controlled. 

The likelihood of hail damage. — Such regions as the 
Piedmont of Virginia and to a lesser degree the Shenan- 
doah-Cumberland district of Virginia, West Virginia, 
Maryland and Pennsylvania are often visited by hail. 
The same is true of the higher altitudes of Colorado and 
other regions where fruit is grown at considerable alti- 
tudes. Hail damage seems to be more prevalent through- 



Yields 347 

out the apple regions of the South than in the northern 
states. 

Bearing tendencies of varieties common to the region. — 
Varieties differ so markedly in bearing tendencies that 
one should consider this factor before passing judgment 
on any particular region. Often high quality varieties, 
even though bearing lighter crops, are fully as profitable 
as the heavier bearing varieties which are inferior in 
market quality. 

Average annual yield. — It is very important to rely on 
an average yield and disregard acre or tree performances 
in any particular year. Only averages of several com- 
mercial orchards over a series of at least five years will 
indicate the relative productivity of different regions. It 
is best to select the naturally productive sections for it is 
no more difficult to rise above the average in a high-yield- 
ing region than it is in a naturally low-yielding one. 

The importance of large yields is further brought out 
under cost of production. 'Not only is the gross income 
increased with larger yields but the cost of production a 
barrel or box is greatly lowered. The average grower will 
find his net profits greater if he will practice more intensive 
methods of culture not counting the initial cost so much 
as the net results. 



CHAPTER XVII 
BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY 

The by-product industry has been of great importance 
for many years and has assumed added significance since 
the advent of national prohibition. The apple leads ail 
other fruits in popularity for by-products, the amount used 
in 1919 exceeding 700,000 tons of green fruit. A large 
proportion of this was made into vinegar and sweet cider 
and about 150,000 tons of green fruit were dried, making 
25,000 tons of dried fruit. Frequently nearly one-half 
of the dried fruit is exported as compared to less than 
one-tenth of the fresh fruit. 

The by-product industry, on a commercial scale, has 
recently assumed large proportions in the Northwest and 
the Virginias. In former years it reached and still re- 
tains its greatest importance in western New York and 
Calif oruia. In northwest Arkansas also, the manufac- 
ture of apple by-products is an important industry. Dried 
apples within recent years have been in great demand. 
The prices have risen several times those of a decade ago. 
California to-day takes the lead in intensive apple drying. 
About 10,000 tons were dried in the two counties of Santa 
Cruz and Sonoma in 1919. This means that the green 
apples used for this amounted to 60,000 or 70,000 tons or 
nearly a million barrels. 

In the East, Wayne County in western New York has 

348 



By-Products of the Apple Industry 349 

always been the center of the dried apple industry. 
Many parts of the country are now taking up the dried 
apple business and a large proportion of the total apple 
production is being dried. In California, the Northwest, 
Xew York, the Virginias and in Arkansas, the industry 
is on a large commercial scale. The mountainous parts 
of the southern states, particularly North Carolina, pro- 
duce several hundred thousand pounds of dried apples 
annually. In these states, they are sun-dried on the 
small mountain farms, the apples being grown almost 
wholly in old uncared for orchards. The Buckingham 
apple has long been a favorite in Carolina for drying pur- 
poses. Several varieties are used for drying in California 
but the Yellow Bellflower leads all others. New York 
dries the Baldwin and Ehode Island Greening. 

Nearly all driers of the West are commercial, while in 
the East the small home driers have long been adhered 
to. Western l^ew York has several large commercial 
driers but the great bulk of the Wayne County dried apple 
production comes from the home driers of which this 
county contains hundreds. 

The by-products industry promises to put apple-growing 
on a more staple and less speculative basis. Formerly, 
the grower depended almost wholly on the price a barrel or 
box of commercial fruit. At present if this price does 
not warrant putting the apples up in packages or contain- 
ers, they may be disposed of at by-product plants at a 
profit. Prohibition has been the important factor de- 
termining the 1919 increase in by-product uses and prices. 
At the present time, about 20 per cent of the apple crop 
of the United States goes to the by-product plant or is 
made into cider. In California, almost 50 per cent of the 



350 The Commercial Apple Industry 

total crop is dried, while in Wayne County, New York, 
about 30 per cent is dried. Wenatchee and some of the 
northwest districts, on account of their ability to produce 
exceptionally high-grade fruit, send less than 10 per cent 
to by-product factories. Arkansas, Colorado, many parts 
of the Middle West, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
New York and New England, will, no doubt, increase the 
percentage of fruit sold for by-products. This will tend 
to eliminate low-grade fruit from the market. The out- 
look for the future is bright and the by-product industry 
has not yet begun to attain full possibilities. It is only 
within the last three or four years that it has been im- 
portant or a factor in the apple industry of the Northwest. 
It rose from a production of almost nothing five years ago 
to 70,000 tons in 1919 in the state of Washington. Much 
more detail might be entered into relative to this industry. 

EVAPOEATOES 

In this connection, a full description of all the different 
types of evaporators cannot be undertaken and but little 
more than mention can be made of the different designs 
in use or in course of construction. In general, evapora- 
tors may be placed in three classes: natural draft evap- 
orators; forced draft evaporators; and distillation types, 
including vacuum evaporators. 

Natural draft evaporators. 

Most of the fruit evaporators in use in New York and 
other eastern states, in Oregon, Washington, and even in 
California for the evaporation of apples, are of the natural 
draft type. The driers of this group require no fan or 
motor for operation ; any type of fuel may be used ; they 



By-Products of the Apple Industry 351 

are simple in construction and operation and not expensive 
to build or operate. They have survived the test of time 
extremely well, although it would seem that; for Califomian 
conditions at least, they may be replaced by the more 
modern air blast types. Some of the natural draft evap- 
orators are : 

The kiln evaporator is commonly used in California and 
the East. It is usually constructed in two stories. The 
upper story houses the drying floor which is usually 20 
feet by 20 feet and is made of narrow wooden strips with 
y^ or % inch spaces left between them to permit passage 
of hot air. Over the drying floor is a steep four-sided roof 
which has at its apex a large ventilator for the escape of 
the spent air. The prepared fruit is placed on the floor 
and turned by a fork or scoop shovel during drying, a 
practice which does not add to the appearance or cleanli- 
ness of the product. The lower floor contains the heating 
system. This consists of a wood, coal or oil-burning 
furnace connected to a number of turns of large heating 
pipes; usually the whole lower story is almost filled with 
these pipes, giving a very large radiating surface with 
consequent efiicient utilization of heat. The heated air 
rises from the pipes through the floor grating and thus over 
the fruit. 

The stack or tower evaporator is the most commonly 
used at Watsonville, California, where it is successful. 
The trays of fruit are placed on run-ways in cabinets or 
" stacks " above a fire-pit ; the trays being stacked one 
above the other. The heated air rises directly through the 
trays, in this way differing from the tunnel drier. The 
bottom of each stack or chamber is open, while the top 
consists of an inverted hopper connecting to the ventilator. 



352 The Commercial Apple Industry 

There are many better types of evaporators and its use is 
not strongly recommended. 

Cabinet evaporator is heated by steam coils but other- 
wise is very similar to the stack evaporator in construction 
and operation. It has been used recently in New York 
and Canada for vegetable and apple drying. 

Ceramic oven. — The ordinary bake-oven principle has 
been successfully applied in California. This type of 
drier should permit of fuel economy as it is constructed 
throughout of brick and fire brick. There is practically 
no fire risk and radiation losses should be small. 

Electrically heated driers. — Small evaporators for home 
use have been designed in which an electric current passing 
through resistance wires furnishes the necessary heat. 
The drier is of the stack type. Except where electricity 
is extremely cheap, it is doubtful whether such machines 
would prove profitable, although a machine of recent de- 
sign appears to have great possibilities. 

Forced draft evaporators. 

Most of the new driers on the market belong to this class. 
The number of different forms is very great and is con- 
stantly being added to. Their one common characteristic 
is the forced air circulation. Outside of this one feature, 
they are of almost every conceivable design. 

Horizontal tunnel. — In general, this type consists of a 
long chamber or tunnel resting on the ground with an air 
heating system and fan so arranged that the heated air 
may be blown or drawn over the trays. Usually the trays 
are carried on trucks which enter the cooler end of the 
tunnel and which leave the tunnel from the hotter end. 
Great variation exists in the methods of heating the air. 



By-products of the Apple Industry 353 

The older types used steam pipes, a system which permits 
exact regulation of the temperature and permits also of 
" boosting " the temperature of the air as it passes through 
the tunnel. Those who have used both steam and direct 
heat, however, prefer the latter because it is claimed to be 
more economical of fuel. Some heating systems are very 
similar to those used in the kiln, stack and tunnel types, 
consisting of a sheet metal furnace attached to radiating 
pipes, the air being heated by being drawn over the heated 
metal surfaces. In another form of heater, the air is 
forced through large pipes held in a fire-box much after 
the fashion of boiler flues. The most interesting develop- 
ment, however, is the use of the gases of combustion 
directly in drying, thus doing away with all stack loss of 
heat. Many machines, of difi:"erent designs, have recently 
come to the attention of the public. At present, stove dis- 
tillate, a more expensive fuel than crude oil, must be used 
in this style of heating device to avoid bad odors, soot, and 
the like. Whether the saving in fuel, therefore, counter- 
balances the difference in price of distillate and of crude 
oil is an open question. If it does not more than equal 
this difference, the saving in fuel cost is more apparent 
than real. 

Stack type of air blast drier. — Some commercially built 
evaporators consist of several stacks or tiers of trays placed 
one above the other and hot air is forced upward through 
and over the trays. Whether it is a more logical type than 
the horizontal blast remains to be seen. 

Continuous evaporators have been developed success- 
fully for vegetable drying, soap chip drying, kelp drying, 
and the like, but have not worked out well for fruits, be- 
cause of the bruising of the fruit and its sticking to the 



354 The Commercial Apple Industry 

belts or conveyers. Essentially, the drier consists of sev- 
eral superimposed metal cloth conveyers or canvas belts 
in a long tunnel. The material to be dried enters the 
tunnel on the upper belt, traverses the length of the tunnel, 
drops to the second belt, and so on until it may travel back 
and forth five to seven times at such a speed that it emerges 
from the lower belt dry. If such a machine could be built 
successfully for fruits, it would doubtless greatly reduce 
labor costs. It has possibilities and will bear further 
study and development. 

Distillation types of evaporators. 

In these evaporators the water is distilled from the fruit 
and the vapors are condensed. 

Atmospheric pressure machines. — In this type the drier 
is not placed under a vacuum but is, however, rather 
tightly closed to the outside air. In one form the fruit 
travels on belts over steam coils. The heat from the coils 
drives the moisture from the fruit. The vapor passes 
over water-cooled pipes and is condensed, giving an area of 
reduced pressure toward which the vapors continually 
flow. In another type the air and gases of combustion 
from a furnace heat the fruit and carry the moisture to 
condensers. This evaporator is really a combination of 
the distillation and air blast forms. 

Vacuum driers. — Insofar as quality of dried product is 
concerned, the vacuum drier is in a class by itself. No 
other drier compares with it in its ability to produce dried 
fruits of fresh flavor, color and aroma. There are two 
reasons for this, one being the practical absence of air in 
the vacuum drier, a fact which accounts for lack of oxida- 
tion, and a second reason for its superiority is the low 



By-Products of the Apple Industry 355 

temperature of drying. Temperatures of 100 to 120 de- 
grees Fahrenheit may be used successfully and rapid evap- 
oration obtained. In its commercial form, the drier usu- 
ally consists of a strong boiler plate chamber with shelves 
for trays and fitted with steam pipes. To this chamber is 
connected a vacuum pump and vapor condenser. The 
air is removed by the pump, the water is driven from the 
fruit by the steam pipes and is condensed in the spray or 
other form of condenser. A continuous vacuum drier has 
recently been built and is a most remarkable machine. 
Vacuum driers possess great possibilities, probably more 
than any other evaporator in use, but have not been gen- 
erally adopted because of their high cost. When such a 
machine can be produced at a moderate price, it will revo- 
lutionize present ideas of evaporation. 

CANNING, JELLY MANUFACTURING 

The canning apple industry has only recently attained 
considerable importance. This phase of the by-product 
business is growing very rapidly in the Shenandoah dis- 
trict of Virginia and West Virginia and in Adams County, 
Pennsylvania. Considerable apples are also canned in 
New England, the Middle West and in New York. The 
Northwest has also taken up the canning industry, but in 
California, apple by-products are still limited largely to 
dried fruit. In various parts of the country, advantage 
has been taken of existing breweries or distilleries in con- 
verting them into canning or cider plants. Most of the 
work in the big canning plants is done by machinery, al- 
though it is usually necessary to have the fruit gone over 
last by hand help in order to detect bits of core or pieces of 
skin left near the calyx or stem. The process of canning 



356 The Commercial Apple Industry 

is much the same as in the case of other fruits and it is 
impossible to enter into detail here. 

Apple jelly is now being manufactured on a consider- 
able commercial scale. It is often made by adding sugar 
to cider, 100 pounds of cider with 20 pounds of sugar mak- 
ing about 40 pounds of jelly. The refuse from cider and 
vinegar mills or apple pomace is often employed for mak- 
ing jelly, the pectin found in this apple pomace being the 
ingredient used. All kinds of fancy and concentrated by- 
products are made from apples and the scope and uses of 
these various apple by-products promises to enlarge greatly. 

CIDER AND VINEGAR 

Cider and vinegar manufacture still absorb most of the 
apples used for by-products. Enormous quantities are 
annually made into cider both in the large commercial 
cider mills and in the smaller mills in the non-commercial 
regions. Large vinegar plants with storage capacity for 
millions of gallons have been established in Virginia, 
West Virginia, New York, New England, the Central 
West and the Northwest. Considerable difficulty has been 
encountered with the prohibition law in the manufacture 
and sale of cider, but it seems fairly certain that rulings 
will be obtained which will always permit the manufac- 
ture of sweet cider. In some of the large cider and vine- 
gar plants where double presses are used, an average of 
over 9 gallons of cider to 100 pounds of apples is obtained. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
COST OF PRODUCTION 

Those regions which are able to produce and market 
apples at the lowest relative cost will survive the keenest 
competition. Every grower instinctively endeavors to put 
his fruit on the market as economically as possible, yet 
only a very few keep accounts of sufficient accuracy to 
arrive at even an approximation of their actual cost of 
production. If the individual grower is unable to give 
accurate cost production figures, it becomes apparent that 
the relative cost of producing apples in different regions 
can only be obtained by detailed and thorough study of 
the items and operations. 

It was the privilege of the authors to study the cost of 
producing apples in eight of the leading apple states of 
this country. In the course of this study, extending 
through several seasons, hundreds of detailed orchard sur- 
vey records were taken, covering every item and operation 
which would influence cost of production. It required 
only a brief study to determine the lack of attention which 
this important subject was receiving at the hands of the 
average grower. Many growers would starve under their 
present lax methods of management if they were wholly 
dependent on apples, or were it a case of clean-cut com- 
petition with the survival of the fittest. 

The manufacturer can not long survive if he does not 
give close attention to production costs. He must not only 

357 



358 The Commercial Apple Industry 

know the total cost of production, but also the various ^ 
items of which it is comprised. Only by knowing these 
can he be prepared intelligently to lower his cost items. 
The same principle applies to the apple-grower. 

An important point in such a study is to determine 
which operations are profitable and which are not. A 
grower should not attempt to lower his costs blindly. He 
must be thoroughly acquainted with the various items of 
expense in order that in attempting to lower cost he will 
not cut corners in the wrong direction and thereby lower 
production. To neglect fertilizing, thinning, spraying or 
such important operations would be a case of lowering 
cost in the wrong direction. It would usually pay to 
spend more on some of these operations in order to increase 
production, and thereby lower cost of production a unit. 
It is merely a case of spending wisely. Those who argue 
against the necessity of knowing the various costs of pro- 
duction do so through selfish motives or through ignor- 
ance. 

The survival of any fruit district depends on its ability 
to produce fruit in competition with other sections. Cer- 
tain regions by virtue of their extremely favorable location 
with respect to soil, climate and economic conditions, are 
firmly established and will always remain prominent in 
the commercial apple industry. Other regions lacking 
some of the necessary qualifications can never succeed. 
In a third class are the marginal districts which lack some 
of the more desirable qualifications, and yet which in cer- 
tain years compare very favorably with the best regions. 
For example, a locality subject to frost might in some 
years produce a very profitable crop and yet over a period 



Cost of Production 359 

of years the crop failures would greatly reduce the average 
returns. 

In considering the marginal regions it is necessary to 
recognize that in a period of low prices they will be the 
first to suffer in the process of elimination. 

Only systematic and careful analysis of the factors en- 
tering into and influencing the cost of production will 
indicate which region will survive and which will fail. 
Growers have made profitable returns on orchard land at 
$1,000 to $2,000 an acre in some regions, while others have 
failed on $100 land in other places. 

Cost production varies not only among regions, but 
among individual growers of the same district. It has 
been found that it costs some growers 50 per cent more a 
barrel or box to harvest their crop than it does their more 
alert neighbors. Some operations, such as spraying, thin- 
ning and proper soil management, are exceedingly profit- 
able within certain limits. Without reliable information, 
the grower can not tell what operations are paying him 
best on the investment. Often the most expensive opera- 
tions are the most profitable. 

Cost production figures reveal the regions which are 
best adapted to the commercial production of apples, em- 
phasize the value and relative importance of different cul- 
tural methods, show the size of orchard which the grower 
can operate most economically, indicate the most profitable 
varieties, and in short reveal all of the best principles in 
orchard selection and management. 

The factors which enter into the cost of production are 
divided into labor costs and costs other than labor. 

The labor costs include both man and horse labor and are 



360 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



further subdivided into maintenance, or growing labor 
costs, and handling labor cost. The growing cost includes 
all the labor required up until the time the apples are 
ready to pick, while the handling cost includes the labor 
of picking, packing, and the like, until the apples are put 
in storage or on board car. 

Costs other than labor take in material and fixed costs. 
Material costs include manure, spray material, fertilizer, 
cover-crop seed, barrels, boxes, and the like. The fixed 
costs comprise all overhead charges, such as interest on 
investment, taxes, the orchard's share of insurance, inter- 
est, depreciation on equipment, and apple buildings. 

Of these main groups of costs, the labor is most likely 
to be the limiting factor in successful production. Fixed 
costs are particularly important in the Northwest on 
account of high land values. 

The various cost items comprising labor, material, and 
fixed costs are enumerated in Table XV. 

Table XV. — Cost Items in Apple Production 



Labor Costs 



Costs Other Than Labor 



Maintenance 



Handling 



Material 



Fixed 



Manuring 
Pruning 

Disposal of brush 
Plowing 
Cultivating 
Sowing mulch crop 
Handling mulch 

crop 
Propping 
Thinning 
Spraying 
Miscellaneous 



Picking 

Hauling barrels 
and shooks 

Hauling to pack- 
ing-house 

Packing 

Sorting 

Foreman 

Nailing or head- 
ing 

Other packing- 
house labor 

Haul to station 



Fertilizer 
Manure 
Spray material 
Box or barrel 
Labels, paper, etc. 



Taxes 
Insurance 
Equipment charge 
Apple house depre- 
ciation 
Interest 
Water rent 



It is not enough merely to learn the cost items, but one 
should go further and study the influences which determine 



Cost of Production ' 361 

them. Such factors as availability and kind of labor, 
location as to soil, climate, transportation, size of orchard, 
size and type of farm, varieties and most of all yields, 
directly influence costs. These are to be particularly con- 
sidered before they become established in any given re- 
gion, for once fixed the growers may find it impossible to 
overcome them should they be unfavorable. 

IMPORTANCE OF YIELDS 

Yield is the all-important item in determining the cost 
production a unit. The subject of yields has been given 
separate treatment elsewhere (see Chapter XVI) but is 
of such great importance as to require particular empha- 
sis. A yield of 200 barrels an acre means much more 
profit a barrel than a yield of 100 barrels an acre. Thus 
there is a large gain, not only in profit to the acre, but 
in profit a barrel or box as well. This factor is over- 
looked by most growers. Otherwise more effort would be 
expended in increasing the yield of commercial fruit in 
many orchards. It is vastly more profitable to have a 
yield of 200 barrels to the acre on a ten-acre orchard than 
100 barrels to an acre on a twenty-acre orchard. No 
grower, and especially the beginner, should attempt to 
handle more acreage than he can take sufficient care of to 
insure a good yield. 

The importance of a high yield is shov^ni in the accom- 
panying table which applies to Hood Eiver, Oregon. 

It is seen from Table XVI that the acre cost varies 
directly with the yield while the box cost varies inversely. 
For instance, in the case of orchards with a yield of 440 
boxes to the acre, there is an acre cost of $412.98 or $.938 
a box, while with orchards with a yield of 115 boxes, the 



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Cost of Production 363 

acre cost is only $223.58, but there is an exceedingly high 
cost of $1.94 a box. In other words, the lowest yielding 
orchards have an acre cost of $189.40, less than the highest 
yielding ones, but a box cost of $1,006 more. A saving 
of $1.00 a box is not only secured by the highest yield, 
but the profits are swelled since this saving of $1.00 a box 
applies to 440 boxes an acre instead of 115. By compar- 
ing the yield in boxes in the first column with the total 
cost a box in the last, the importance of yields is most 
forcibly brought out. 

Attention has been drawn to the fact that with yields 
averaging 440 boxes an acre, apples are produced in Hood 
River at a cost of $1,006 a box less than when the yields 
were only 115 boxes an acre. The handling and material 
costs for boxes, and the like, increased almost directly with 
the yield, so there is little saving on a box in these items. 
However, in the maintenance costs such as pruning, spray- 
ing, thinning, and in the fixed costs such as interest on 
investment, the greatest saving a box is effected for fixed 
costs an acre, remain practically the same for all yields. 

In figuring cost of production, so much must be allowed 
for interest on investment. If an orchardist has an in- 
vestment of $1,000 an acre, interest on that amount at 7 
per cent would be $70.00 an acre a year. This cost dis- 
tributed over 440 boxes would be about 16 cents a box; 
distributed over 115 boxes an acre this cost would amount 
to about 61 cents a box. As seen from the above, the fixed 
costs are the group in which the greatest saving is effected 
by increased yields. Tixed costs such as interest on in- 
vestment are too often ignored or overlooked by growers 
who do not realize that these items very often determine 
the success or failure of an orchard enterprise. The fixed 



364 The Commercial Apple Industry 

or overhead cost an acre once established can only be met 
successfully by increased yields. 

Returning to maintenance, it is found that these costs 
are generally somewhat higher an acre in the high yield- 
ing than in the low yielding orchards due to more thorough 
work, although it is obvious that a dormant spray on a 
low yielding orchard is about as expensive as that on a 
productive planting. The maintenance costs on the high- 
est yielding orchards in Hood Eiver were only $18.00 more 
an acre than on the lowest ones, and yet the saving a box in 
the case of the former on account of increased yields rep- 
resented 300 per cent when figured on the box basis. 
The foregoing principles, although demonstrated by ex- 
amples from Hood River, Oregon, are applicable to all 
regions of the United States, whether producing boxed or 
barreled apples. They demonstrate how and why yields 
are the all important factor in successfully lowering cost of 
production. 

INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF OECHABD 

The size of the orchard is another important factor in 
determining cost. Given the same acre yield, the larger 
the acreage the less the cost of production a imit. Inves- 
tigations have shown, however, that beyond a certain 
acreage the yield decreases more rapidly than does the 
acre cost of production, thereby making the cost a box 
or barrel higher than in the small orchards. In other 
words, the decrease in the maintenance, fixed and material 
cost an acre is often more than offset by the decrease in 
yield. 

In Table XVII, which refers to Hood River, a slight in- 
crease is seen in cost a box as the size of the orchard in- 



Cost of Production 365 

Table XVII. — Effect of Size of Orchard on Cost a Box 





Yield. 


Cost. 




An Acre. 


A Box. 


5 and under 


406 
331 
306 

284 


$458 
381 
369 
340 


$1.13 
1.15 
1.21 
1.20 


5 to 10 inc 


10 to 20 inc 


20 and over 





creases, which is due to the yield decreasing as the size of 
the orchard increases. It is obvious, however, that with 
the same yield to the acre in the larger orchards, the cost 
a box would be very much less. 

In this connection it should be stated that in certain sec- 
tions the economic unit of orchards which can safely be 
managed is much larger, but in every district there is an 
economic unit beyond which nine growers out of ten do 
not make as great a success as the small grower. From 
investigations in western New York, the economic unit 
would seem to be from fifteen to twenty acres when the 
orchard is connected with diversified farming. There are 
many successful and very progressive growers operating 
large acreages, but these are specialists as a rule. Theo- 
retically, the larger the orchard the larger the profit, but 
this does not always work out in practice. Many growers 
have failed in the apple business because they have figured 
that a large acreage fairly well cared for would produce 

' more apples and yield more profit than a smaller acreage 
more intensively looked after and yielding larger annual 
crops. The most profitable sized orchard, from the stand- 

I point of cost of production, will vary widely in different 
regions. It is probably the smallest in the irrigated sec- 
tions of the Northwest and the largest in such regions as 



366 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Virginia. The size should be determined very largely by 
a study of the most successful orchards in any particular 
community. When tractors are used, the orchards should 
be larger. 

Attention must be given to the prevailing system of or- 
chard operation, to the average annual yields of the region, 
and to the availability of labor. It is obvious under irri- 
gated conditions when trees make rapid growth, when the 
yields are heavy and when such operations as irrigation, 
thinning and the like are intensively practiced, that 
smaller acreages are advisable. Probably twenty to 
twenty-five acres is the best size under such conditions. 

Western JSTew York growers have found that a bearing 
orchard of twelve to twenty-five acres fits in well with their 
system of diversified farming. Virginia apple-growers, 
less given to diversification, find thirty to forty acres an 
economic unit, and many succeed with much larger units. 
It is only the exceptional grower with large working capital 
and keen business ability who can handle successfully a 
very large acreage. 

EFFECT OF SIZE AND TYPE OF FAEM 

The size of the orchard in relation to its effect on cost 
of production has been discussed, but very often the or- 
chard is only one part of a more or less general farm. 
The size and type of the general farm may reduce profits 
from the apple orchard by taking away labor at critical 
seasons, or may increase profits by supplying labor at a low 
cost. A general farm may insure diversification and a 
continuous employment and profitable distribution of 
labor throughout the season. This is largely a problem in 
farm management. 



Cost of Production 



367 



An interesting chart has been prepared showing the 
average distribution of man and horse labor on an acre of 
bearing orchard throughout the season under intensive 
treatment (Fig. 10). 



MONTHS 


HORSE. HOURS 
10 20 


MAN HOURS 1 

SO 1.0 30 40 SO eo 10 so so 100 no | 


JAN. 


1 


^ 






FEB. 


■ 


^■^B 






MAR. 


^ 


^a^m 






APR. 


■^ 


^ 






MAY 


■^B 


■■■■ 






JUN 


^^ 


■^■^ 






JUL. 


^ 


^^1^ 






AUG 

SEP. 

OCT. 

NOV. 


■ 


" 






^^^^ 




^^ 






DEC. 


1 


■ 







Fig. 10. — Showing seasonal distribution of man and horse labor 
on the average bearing orchard in irrigated regions. 

In specialized apple-growing, there are always long 
periods of enforced idleness for both man and horse labor, 
but particularly the latter. If plenty of day help is avail- 
able at reasonable rates, this labor distribution is not so 
necessary, but when help is hired by the month, i is of 
vital importance. If one were certain of high fruit prices 
at all times, the small, intensified, specialized farm would 
be justifiable and even advisable, for in such cases a high 
quality of fruit is usually produced. However, there has 
to be a provision for the periods of low prices and this can 
best be met by diversification. That most fruit-farms in 



368 The Commercial Apple Industry 

the Northwest are small and intensive has been due to the 
system of land development. Cost of production in this 
region is only kept within bounds by high average annual 
yields. The farms of the East are more diversified and 
with the same yield as in the Northwest orchards the cost 
of production is very much less, due not only to a less fixed 
cost an acre, but to a lower maintenance cost and a more 
seasonable distribution of labor. It should be added, how- 
ever, that very rarely do the yields in eastern orchards 
equal those to the acre from the intensified irrigated or- 
chards of the West. 

The size, type and diversification of the farm will de- 
pend largely on the initial cost of the land, the adaptability 
of other profitable crops, and acreage which has proved to 
be the best economic unit in any particular community. 
Conditions vary so widely in different districts that no 
specific recommendations can be made. However, the ex- 
perience of a community may always be depended on. 
In every established community there are certain growers 
or farmers Avhose success and methods stand out above 
those of their neighbors. It is well to study the secret of 
their success in farm management. Care should be taken 
not to be misled by the very unusual or exceptional farm 
which employs radically different methods. A particular 
farm may be successful, either through the extraordinary 
ability of its owner or through peculiar local conditions of 
labor and transportation, or on account of a special mar- 
ket. This success may not always be duplicated. 

Under eastern conditions, it is usually better to depend 
on a fair-sized farm, and endeavor to bring it above the 
average, than to count on a very small acreage cultivated 
intensively or on a very large acreage which requires 



Cost of Production 369 

skilled farm managerial ability when its size exceeds that 
of the economic unit. The prospective buyer or settler 
should always take into consideration the community prac- 
tice and the existing economic conditions before investing 
large sums and plunging into a method of farm manage- 
ment and organization wholly foreign to that region. 
Such undertakings sometimes succeed, but in most cases 
they have failed on account of the growers' inability to 
gauge conditions from a practical instead of a theoretical 
standpoint. Diversification is generally recommended in 
lowering cost of production, but it should not be prac- 
ticed to the neglect of the orchard. Under neglect the or- 
chard usually ceases to be commercial and is separated 
from the realm of commercial fruit-growing. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE AND SOIL ON COST OF PEODUCTION 

The cost of production is affected by climate and soil 
insofar as these factors determine the yield and quality of 
fruit and govern cultural methods. In humid climates 
the cost of spraying is usually greater, on account of 
fungous troubles. In arid climates, however, there is the 
added cost of irrigation. Some soils are easily cultivated 
and adapted to tree growth. Others are poor in plant- 
food and difficult of cultivation. Soil has such a very 
direct bearing on yield that it is well to study the yield on 
different soils. Only average yields should be considered. 
For example, when the average yield an acre of fifty com- 
mercial orchards in one district is fifty barrels below that 
of a similar number of commercial orchards in another 
district, it is usually safe to assume that this difference is 
due to soil. Often this may be overcome by scientific and 
intelligent treatment, although no other test is quite so 



370 The Commercial Apple Industry 

indicative of the adaptibility of apples to any certain re- 
gion as the average yield. It is not more difficult to rise 
above the average in a naturally high yielding community 
than in a low yielding one, and the grower ordinarily 
would better strive to improve a good soil than to build 
up a poor one. The question of soil influences cost of pro- 
duction so greatly as to warrant the most careful consider- 
ation. 

Climate determines in a broad way where apples may 
be grown. Apples are confined to the temperate zone. 
In the United States, the irrigated valleys of the North- 
west, the northern states, and the higher portion of the 
southern states are best adapted, and yet throughout these 
regions frost does enormous damage to the apple crop every 
year. There are certain favored sections which frost sel- 
dom damages, such as the Wenatchee Valley of Washing- 
ton and certain limited sections in the East. Freedom 
from frost damage means greater annual yields and con- 
sequently more profit and less cost of production. 

INFLUENCE OF VARIETIES 

Varieties influence cost of production, inasmuch as some 
are more easily grown than others, and there is a wide dif- 
ference in yield in orchards of the same age and under 
like conditions of management. Such varieties as Esopus, 
Arkansas Black, Winter Banana and Newtown are more 
costly to grow and produce than Ben Davis, Winesap, 
Baldwin, Greening and York. Ben Davis, although one 
of the lowest priced apples in the market, is one of the 
heaviest yielders and is no doubt generally produced at a 
lower cost than any other commercial apple. The follow- 
ing table shows the relative cost of production a unit of bar- 



Cost of Production 



371 



rel or box of various commercial varieties. It is based on 
cost production studies conducted in the leading apple 
states : 

Table XVIII. — Cost of Production a Fnit or Barrel or Box 



High Cost. 

1. Tompkins King 

2. Mcintosh 

3. Yellow Newtown 

4. Arkansas 

5. Winter Banana 

6. Esopus (Spitzen- 

burg) 

7. Northern Spy 

8. Grimes 

9. White Pearmain 

10. Gilliflower 

11. Lady Apple 

12. Bonum 



Medium Cost. 

1. Hubbardston 

2. Fameuse 

3. Winesap 

4. Stayman 

5. Black Twig 

6. Baldwin 

7. R. I. Greening 

8. Gravenstein 

9. Jonathan 

10. Delicious 

11. Maiden Blush 

12. Missouri Pippin 



Low Cost. 

1. Ben Davis 

2. York Imperial 

3. Rome Beauty 

4. Tolman Sweet 

5. Limbertwig 

6. Yates 

7. Yellow Bellflower 

8. Duchess 

9. Wealthy 

10. Fallawater 

11. Smith's Cider 

12. Willow Twig 



Most of the varieties included under high cost of pro- 
duction are of high quality. Most of them are produced 
only in limited quantities, due either to the inherent deli- 
cacy of the trees or their light yielding tendencies. All 
command a high price in the market. 

All those given under medium cost are widely grown 
and are generally good yielders. The column under low 
cost includes many highly important commercial varieties, 
but most of these are of low dessert quality. It seems 
to be a rule that, in general, the low dessert quality apples 
are the highest producers and consequently the lowest in 
cost of production, while the high quality apples are high- 
est in cost of production and lowest in yield. It will be 
noted that there are exceptions to this in all the columns 
and in the case of some varieties that are not recorded. 
Many of the high cost varieties are late bearers. 



372 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ACCESSIBILITY TO MARKET 

Distance and accessibility to shipping point are factors 
which have an important bearing on the cost of produc- 
tion. For example, in many sections of Virginia and Car- 
olina, apples are produced fairly cheap on the trees, but a 
long haul, often of ten to twenty miles over rough roads, 
adds very materially to the cost of delivery, f. o. b. ship- 
ping point. Not infrequently a charge of forty or more 
cents a barrel must be made to cover the cost of hauling 
apples to the railroad station. Usually such orchards are 
situated on low-priced land and have a low overhead 
charge or fixed cost. For comparison, in Hood River, 
Oregon, the fixed cost is practically $.31 a box, or $.93 a 
barrel, while in the mountains of Virginia and Carolina 
the fixed cost is often not more than one-tenth of this 
amount. 

While cost of production usually includes only the cost 
f . o. b. at loading station, to this figure should also be added 
the cost of delivering the fruit to the consuming markets 
in order properly to compare one region with another. j 

COST OF MATERIALS ! 

\ 

The cost of materials is one of the direct factors to be \ 
considered in cost production. The material cost, how- i 
ever, does not vary greatly in different regions and there- | 
fore is scarcely a limiting factor. It is important to rec- | 
ognize, however, that the price of spray material, fertili- li 
zer, barrels and boxes may be lowered materially by 
cooperation and judicious purchasing. Examples in low- |- 
ering the costs by these methods may be found in the apple |- 
districts of the Northwest. 



Cost of Production 373 

LABOR AND COST PKODUCTIOiN" 

Farm and orchard labor varies greatly in the different 
sections of the country with respect to its efficiency, intelli- 
gence, and the rate of wage paid. While daily wage rates 
may be high, they may be more economical in the end, due 
to greater efficiency. The following table shows the 
amount of apples which the average laborer picks in a full 
working day in several of the leading fruit regions. This 
refers to day labor unless otherwise stated. In the fall of 
1919, however, picking by the box system came into use 
in the ^N^orthwest and many under this system averaged 
150 boxes a day. Picking by the box, however, is not 
always satisfactory as it promotes carelessness and conse- 
quent damage to the quality of the fruit. 

Table XIX. — Amount of Apples Picked in One Day 

Yakima, Washington 60 loose boxes, 20 barrels. 

Wenatchee, Washington 75 " " 25 " 

Hood River, Oregon 60 " '^ 20 '^ 

Watsonville, California 54 " " 17 

Western Colorado 57 " " 19 " 

Western New York (day labor) 20 " 

Western New York ( contract labor by barrel ) 25 " 

Piedmont District of Virginia 10 " 

Southern Ohio 11 " 

The orchards in the Piedmont district of Virginia are 
usually on hillsides and for that reason picking is more 
difficult. Furthermore, the question of yields is involved. 
However, it may be seen from the above that it is not im- 
possible for cheap labor to be the most expensive. There 
is as much complaint over labor costs in the South as in 
any other part of the country. In regions of general 
farming, labor is usually cheaper than in specialized sec- 
tions since it can be employed profitably for a longer 



374 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



season. General farming permits the emplojonent of 
month labor at a lower wage than must be paid for day 
labor. On the other hand, labor in general farming com- 
munities is not likely to be as skilled as where apple-grow- 
ing is the most important industry. The efficiency of 
labor is an important factor in the cost of production. 

ORCHARD MAINTENANCE 

Labor is the most important item in orchard mainte- 
nance, which involves such operations as pruning, culti- 
vating, thinning and spraying. It will be seen from the: 
following table that maintenance labor costs vary widely 
in different regions according to the intensity of the cul- 
tural practices. 

Table XX 
Maintenance Labor Cost in Seven Important Apple Regions i 



Region. 



Hours per Acre. 


Cost 1 
of 


Packed 
Yield 






Man. 


Horse. 


labor. 


acre. 


77 


63 


$49.70 


252 bu. 


214 


91 


134.30 


432 bx. 


230 


96 


143.80 


593 " 


142 


82 


88.51 


320 " 


177 


72 


110.10 


337 " 


161 


76 


103.30 


284 " 


89 


54 


60.70 


226 " 



Cost 

per 

bushel. 



Western New York 

Yakima Valley 

Wenatchee Valley 

Hood River 

Southern Idaho 

Western Colorado 

California (Watsonville Dist. ) 



$.197 
.311 
.242 
.277 
.327 
.364 
.269 



1 Man labor rates in these regions varied from 40 to 50 cents an 
hour while horse labor was figured at about 30 cents an hour. 



The above table is a summary of the maintenance labor 
costs on approximately 700 commercial apple orchards in 
various parts of the United States. Detailed orchard 



Cost of Production 375 

records and yields covering a period of five years are the 
basis for these figures which reveal some very surprising 
facts. Particular attention is called to the variation in 
amount of man and horse hours expended in maintaining 
orchards in different regions. The amount of labor does 
not change materially and is, therefore, a better guide than 
labor costs which do vary with labor rates. Maintenance 
labor is that expended in the following operations: Man- 
uring, pruning, disposal of brush, plowing, cultivating, 
sowing mulch crop, handling mulch crop, propping, thin- 
ning, spraying, irrigation and miscellaneous. 

Western New York growers expend annually only 77 
man hours and 63 horse hours an acre in these operations. 
Apple-growers in Wenatchee do not use many more horse 
hours to the acre, but expend three times the amount of 
man labor an acre than is given for western ISTew York 
orchards. That such intensive methods are profitable is 
shown by the increased yields and high marketable quality 
of fruit produced. After spending $94 an acre more in 
maintenance, the Wenatchee grower, by increased yields, 
is able to keep his maintenance costs at a figure only 4^^ 
cents a bushel greater than the New York grower. 

It is interesting to note that the amount of horse labor 
to the acre does not vary greatly in the different regions, 
while the man labor varies 300 per cent, being greater 
in the Northwest where such intensive practices as thin- 
ning and irrigation require man labor, but little or no 
horse labor. 

Cost of pruning and brush disposal. 

The following table will serve to show pruning practices 
and costs in several important regions : 



376 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Table XXI 

Pruning and Brush Disposal — Relative Time and Costs in 
Different Regions 



Region. 


Man 

hrs. per 

acre 


Horse 

hrs. per 

acre 


Cost 

of 
labor 


Cost 

of 

busheL 


Trees 
per 
day 


Western New York 


31 

64 
52 
30 
58 
62 
31 


6 
11 

14 
7 
9 

11 

7 


$14.20 
35.30 
30.20 
15.60 
31.70 
34.30 
17.60 


.06 
.08 
.05 
.05 
.09 
.12 
.08 


14 


Yakima 


14 


Wenatchee 

Hood River 


19 
30 


Southern Idaho 

Colorado 


13 
14 


California (Watsonville Dist.) 


23 



In all apple regions, pruning usually represents at 
least one-fourth of all labor expended up until the time 
of picking. Although the northwestern growers spend 
more labor to the acre in pruning, it must be remembered 
that there are nearly twice as many trees to the acre as in 
such regions as western 'New York. Cost production 
studies reveal that the importance of pruning is generally 
recognized. The amount of pruning necessary varies 
widely with the variety. In the Hood River Valley, the 
Yellow Newtown and Esopus Spitzenburg which predom- 
inate in this region do not require nearly as much pruning 
labor as the more vigorous or rampant growing varieties. 

Pruning cost a bushel of marketable fruit produced 
averages from 5 to 8 cents, of which about 2 cents is rep- 
resented by the cost of handling brush. 

Soil management. 

Different systems of soil management make the cost of 
this operation exceedingly variable. One would imagine 
with the general intensive cultural methods of the North- 
west that soil management would represent a considerable 
cost item in this region. As a matter of fact, the value ^ 



Cost of Production 377 

of the shdde crop usually grown in the orchard more than 
pays for the cost of soil management plus irrigation in 
the Northwest. Under the old systems of clean cultiva- 
tion, the northwest grower expended from $15 to $20 an 
acre in soil management. By growing alfalfa as a shade 
crop and taking off one or two cuttings, he makes about 
enough to pay soil management costs. Some of the best 
authorities maintain that in taking off two or more cut- 
tings of alfalfa, the grower is depleting soil fertility. It 
is to be questioned whether it is advisable to remove more 
than one cutting. 

For eastern and middle western orchards, with the ex- 
ception of those in sod mulch, soil management involves 
about the same amount of labor to the aero as does pruning, 
since about 25 per cent of all the labor spent in growing 
apples up until harvest is in cultivation or other labor on 
the soil. Western JSTew York growers expend about 13 
man hours and 28 horse hours to the acre in soil manage- 
ment. 

The greatest saving in sod mulch orchards in the East 
is in the absence of any expense for soil treatment. How- 
ever, this saving is usually more than lost in decreased 
yields. 

It is of interest to note the number of acres one man 
and teami will cover a day with the ordinary cultivation 
tools. 



Table XXII.- 


- Acres a 


Day 


FOR 


One Man and Two Horses 




Irrigated 
Regions. 


Eastern 
Regions. 


^ Plow 


1.5 
5.5 
6.5 
10. 


2 


' Disc 


7 


Spring-tooth .... 


10 


J Spike-tooth 


12 



378 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



The northwestern grower covers a less number of acres 
a day with each cultivating tool than does the eastern 
grower. This is partly explained by the fact that there 
are practically twice as many trees to the acre in the irri- 
gated sections, thus necessitating more care than in the 
East. The orchards in the irrigated sections are often 
inter-planted with shade crops as alfalfa, and in such cases 
operations like plowing and discing necessarily require 
considerable time and labor. 

Thinning. 

The practice of thinning varies so greatly that a study 
of the extent and cost of this operation in several different 
regions will be of particular interest. 



Table XXIII. — Thinning Practices and Costs 





Yield 


Man 


Cost 


Cost 


Region. 


per 


hrs. per 


per 


per 




acre. 


acre. 


acre. 


bushel. 


Western New York 


252 bus. 


4 


$1.60 


$.0063 


Yakima 


432 bxs. 


49 


24.50 


.0567 


Wenatchee 


593 " 


53 


26.50 


.0447 


Hood River 


320 " 
337 " 


25 

47 


11.25 
23.50 


.0352 


Southern Idaho 


.0697 


Western Colorado 


284 " 


18 


9.00 


.0317 


California (Watsonville Dist.)... 


226 " 


14 


7.00 


.0310 



A sharp contrast is brought out when the average amount 
of thinning in such regions as western New York is com- 
pared with the heavy thinning in the I^orthwest in such 
districts as Wenatchee Valley. The average ISTew York 
grower expends only 4 hours an acre in thinning his apple 
crop. The average Wenatchee grower devotes 53 hours 
labor to the acre in thinning, but when the cost of this 



Cost of Production 379 

labor is distributed over the average yield, it amounts to 
less than 5 cents a box. When one considers the higher 
annual yields and the greatly improved quality directly 
due to thinning, it may readily be seen that to omit thin- 
ning is to cut costs in the wrong direction. 

From the standpoint of economy, the v^riters are con- 
vinced that not only will thinning improve quality, but 
that it will actually lower cost of production by increasing 
annual yields. 

Spraying. 

The cost of spraying is discussed in Chapter X. 

HARVESTING COSTS 

Harvesting costs include all the labor and material costs 
incident to picking, packing and delivering fruit to the 
station. These represent from 40 to 50 per cent of the 
cost of producing apples. It might be stated here that 
fixed costs, such as interest on investment, represent about 
20 to 25 per cent, while maintenance costs for such opera- 
tions as thinning and spraying, represent from 25 to 30 
per cent of the total cost of production. 

In Table XXIV is shown the amount of labor neces- 
sary for harvesting crops in several different regions and 
also the cost a bushel for labor and material incident to 
harvesting. It is seen that all harvesting costs make up 
from 45 to 50 per cent of the total cost of production. 

It is interesting to note that labor cost for harvesting 
boxed apples is but little greater than for barreled apples, 
while five years ago it was nearly 100 per cent greater. 
Labor rates have increased more proportionately in the 
barrel apple regions than in the box sections. It now costs 
most barrel sections nearly 25 cents a barrel for picking. 



380 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



Table XXIV. — Total Harvesting Cost 
(Cost refers to marketable fruit only.) 



Region. 



Yield 
per 



Labor 
cost per 
packed 
bushel. 



Labor & 

Material 
cost per 
packed 
bushel. 



Per cent, 
of total 
cost of 
produc- 
tion. 



Western New York 

Yakima 

Wenatchee 

Hood River 

Southern Idaho 

Western Colorado 

California (Watsonville Dist.) 



252 bus. 

432 bxs. 

593 

320 

337 

284 

226 



.2235 
.2775 
.2775 
.2801 
.2775 
.2775 
.2650 



$.4402 
.5600 
.5600 
.5251 
.5600 
.5600 
.5050 



50 
47 
48 
45 
49 
45 
48 



Other harvesting and packing labor, aside from the pick- 
ing, averages about 1.8 barrels to a man an hour. This is 
the case in New York, the Middle West, and commercial 
sections of Virginia. The western grower figures that he 
is repaid for any extra cost in handling and packing his 
crop by increased returns for his fruit. The secret of his 
success on the market has been due to this intensive effort. 

Table XXV shows fixed costs, including charges for 
interest on investment, for several important apple regions. 

The fixed costs, as before stated, comprise those annual 

Table XXV.— Total Fixed Costs 





Yield _ 
per 


Interest charge 


Total Fi> 


ed Cost 


% Total 
Cost of 


Region. 










Acre. 


per acre. 


per bu. 


per acre. 


per bu. 


tion. 


Western New York. 


252 bus. 


$26. 


$0.10 


$34. 


$0.13 


15 


Yakima 


432 " 


86. 


.20 


114. 


.26 


22 


Wenatchee 


593 " 


154. 


.26 


187. 


.32 


27 


Hood River 


320 " 


79. 


.25 


99. 


.31 


26 


Southern Idaho. . . . 


337 " 


49. 


.15 


63. 


.19 


16 


Western Colorado. . . 


284 " 


52. 


.18 


72. 


.25 


20 


California — 














( Watsonville Dist. ) 


226 " 


41. 


.18 


49. 


.22 


21 



Cost of Production 381 

charges, the acre cost being little affected by the size of the 
crop. Fixed costs include taxes, depreciation, insurance, 
and interest on investment. Of these, interest on invest- 
ment is by far the most important. This item alone 
reaches $154 annually in the Wenatchee Valley, a cost 
which is a good price for land in many sections. Western 
New York had an interest cost an acre of only one-sixth 
this amount. The high yields of the Wenatchee Valley, 
however, tend to overcome this high interest charge. Fig- 
ured on the bushel basis, the interest charge at Wenatchee 
was 26 cents a bushel as compared with 10 cents a bushel 
in New York state. This fixed cost has not increased in 
most apple sections since 1914, while labor rates have ad- 
vanced about 100 per cent and cost of material rose sharply 
in 1920. 

Hood River, Oregon, has an annual acre interest charge 
of $75 less than that for the Wenatchee Valley. Return- 
ing to the interest cost a box, it is seen that Hood River is 
charged with 25 cents a box as compared with only 26 
cents for Wenatchee. This serves to show very emphati- 
cally that high costs a box or barrel are to be considered 
irrespective of fixed costs an acre, for yields directly de- 
termine fixed cost a box or barrel. 

On the other hand, it is important to remember that any 
saving in fixed cost is direct. This may be effected in the 
judicious purchase of land. It is always poor economy 
to grow apples on poor land, but at the same time orchards 
are over-capitalized in many regions and the grower of 
limited means will sometimes find his fixed cost so high 
in a series of poor years that he will not be able to sur- 
vive the hard times. It should be repeated that once these 
fixed costs to an acre are established, they can not be low- 



382 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ered and can only be met successfully by increasing and 
maintaining yields. 

Much more detail might be entered into in a discussion 
of the cost of production in the various regions. It is con- 
stantly changing with the price of labor and materials. It 
is important to cut out all unnecessary expense in connec- 
tion with the orchard and pay strict attention to yield of 
high quality fruit. However, expenses to the acre should 
not be spared if it decreases expense a box or barrel. Al- 
most universally the grower who spends most on his or- 
chard when invested in a systematic way, such as proper 
pruning, fertilizing, thinning and spraying, produces 
apples at a less cost a box or barrel than the grower who 
tries to save dimes by lack of sufficient attention to the 
orchard and loses dollars by lack of a good yield. 

When selecting an orchard or site, it is extremely im- 
portant that probable cost of production be studied and 
taken into account. The limiting factor which determines 
the success or failure of a region may be climate, soil, 
transportation, topography, labor, cost of materials or one 
of many other things. Above all, it is most important 
to remember that large annual yields of high quality fruit 
will overcome most unfavorable factors. In fact, high 
yields are in themselves proof that most factors are either 
favorable or, if unfavorable, may be overcome. Yields 
should be based on an average of at least five years. Mis- 
leading statements as regarding yields are often wilfully 
made in various commercial publications for advertising 
purposes. Acreage averages should be used and not tree 
averages. One is likely to draw erroneous conclusions 
from the performance of individual trees. 

If cost production figures are based on the average an- 



Cost of Production 383 

nual yields for bearing commercial orchards in a com- 
munity, the results will indicate the relative success of the 
average grower. By intelligent handling, the progressive 
grower usually finds no difficulty in rising above the com- 
munity average. If the average man is making a good 
profit, the exceptional grower should made a still better 
one. 

Table XXVI is a summary of all costs and is based on 
1919 conditions. The cost a box varies from $1.05 in 
California to $1.25 in Colorado. The northwest irri- 
gated regions vary in cost of production from $1.15 to 
$1.20 a box. Average western New York costs amount 
to $2.62 a barrel f. o. b. All these costs are based on yields 
of marketable fruit. Cull apples are not credited. How- 
ever, as these orchards represent those producing fruit 
for the commercial box or barrel market, the percentage 
of cull fruit is small. In fact, the average annual credit 
from the cull fruit has been found in most instances prac- 
tically to balance the annual orchard depreciation. These 
two more or less variable and uncertain factors, may, in 
general then, be said about to balance. 

Orchard heating is another cost which sometimes occurs 
in certain regions but this cannot be given consideration 
as it is now seldom practiced in apple orchards and is 
very generally discredited. The high cost has been found 
to make it prohibitive and unprofitable in most cases and 
particularly in western Colorado where at one time it was 
widely practiced. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Cost of production in any region depends primarily 
on the yield of marketable fruit. It varies inversely with 



384 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



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Cost of Production 385 

yields ; the higher the yield, the lower the cost of produc- 
tion a unit. 

2. Maintenance practices such as spraying, pruning 
and cultivating, greatly influence yield. As a general 
rule, increase in maintenance costs to the acre means a 
decrease in cost a box or barrel. It is poor economy to 
neglect orchard practices which are necessary to high yields 
of good quality fruit. 

3. The average commercial grower in the United 
States could effect a considerable saving in his cost of pro- 
duction if he spent more time in thinning his fruit. At 
the present time only growers in the Pacific ^Northwest 
thin extensively. Even there this operation could be prac- 
ticed more systematically with profit. 

4. Growers with mature orchards or those reaching ma- 
turity can in many cases greatly increase annual yields 
and thereby lower cost of production, if they will give more 
attention to soil management and fertilization. ]^o phase 
of fruit-growing is of more importance than the mainte- 
nance of soil fertility. 

5. The relative acre value of apple orchards should be 
determined largely by average annual yields. Low yields 
with excessive fixed costs limit successful production in 
many widely advertized regions. 

6. The cost of production is exceedingly variable de- 
pending so largely on yield, labor rates and overhead costs, 
all of which are so variable that no definite figure which 
will hold can be given. However, it has been found that 
under 1919 conditions box apples could not be put in the 
car for less than $1.20 a box, while barreled apples ordi- 
narily averaged about $2.50 a barrel, f. o. b., in cost of pro- 
duction. The cost of boxes was figured at 22 cents, of 



386 The Commercial Apple Industry 

barrels 60 cents. Labor was figured at 40 to 50 cents 
tbe hour and materials were charged at the 1919 rate. 
Changes should be made accordingly. Increased price of 
packages brought the 1920 cost of production of boxed ap- 
ples to about $1.30 and of barreled apples to about $3.50. 



CHAPTEE XIX 
VARIETIES OF APPLES 

The proper selection of varieties should be given careful 
consideration by the commercial apple-grower since this 
may determine the success or failure of his enterprise. 
Hundreds of varieties of apples are grown in the United 
States and many hundreds of others are described in 
pomological lists. It is interesting to note, however, how 
relatively few varieties make up the commercial apple 
production of the United States. Twelve varieties repre- 
sent nearly 80 per cent of the commercial apple crop of 
the United States. Such a limited list would probably 
include Ben Davis, Baldwin, Khode Island Greening, 
Winesap, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Yellow Newtown, 
York Imperial, Delicious, Stayman, Grimes and Wealthy. 
These varieties are not of recent origin, but are almost 
without exception old and well established sorts known to 
the commercial grower for generations. 

Baldwin has been known since the middle of the eigh- 
teenth century, while Ben Davis was propagated over one 
hundred years ago. Jonathan was first exhibited in 1829, 
while Northern Spy has been famous for its high dessert 
and market qualities for over one hundred years. Rhode 
Island Greening was highly recommended as long ago as 
1800 and the same is true of Tompkins King. Yellow 
Newtown has been prized for its good qualities for almost 

387 



388 The Commercial Apple Industry 

two centuries, while the good qualities of the Winesap 
apple were known as long ago as 1817. Oldenburg 
(Duchess), the planting of which has become very exten- 
sive in recent years, is a very old European variety which 
was introduced in this country as long ago as 1835. 

Yellow Bellflower, one of the leading varieties of Cal- 
ifornia and well known throughout the country, has been 
noted for its dessert quality for one hundred years. Stay- 
man, which is ordinarily classed as new, bore fruit as early 
as 1875. Grimes was a commercial sort in 1800. Esopus 
Spitzenburg was grown in the Hudson Valley over a cen- 
tury ago. The Delicious is about the only variety of 
recent origin which has grown to great popularity and 
forced itself on practically all the commercial markets. 

This brief discussion serves to emphasize how hard it is 
for any variety to become well known in commercial chan- 
nels without many years of thorough trial and an acquaint- 
anceship with the public. It further serves to emphasize 
how really few kinds survive. It is said that approxi- 
mately 7,000 varieties of apples have been described in 
pomological publications since 1804. Of these, very few 
are of commercial importance to-day. This does not pre- 
clude the possibility of developing new and better kinds, 
but the commercial gi'ower has found it profitable to limit 
the number of his varieties and allow others to experiment 
with new or doubtful ones. 

In every region, from four to six well-known varieties 
have proved most profitable, and it is the safest plan to 
select three or four from this list and plant new varieties 
only in limited quantities. In the early history of com- 
mercial apple-growing, it was necessary to experiment with 
untried varieties since no one knew exactly what ones 



Varieties of Apples 389 

were best adapted to the different regions. Most of this 
pioneer work has been done, however, and it is no longer 
necessary to take chances with strange varieties. 

In a discussion of varieties, the question of relative 
flavor of the same sort grown in different regions arises. 
An interesting investigation has been conducted by the 
Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agri- 
culture, which reveals that there is essentially no difference 
in chemical constituency between normal specimens of 
apples of the same variety grown in different regions. 
The percentage of water content and solid matter is prac- 
tically the same. This investigation, of course, did not 
pertain to the physiological or cell-structure of the apples, 
and it may be true that some difference exists in this 
respect. 

A western apple forced by unwise irrigation, or picked 
green, will not compare with the choicest specimens of 
eastern apples. One region may grow one or two varieties 
to great perfection in quality and flavor, while another 
will grow superior apples of some other kind. New York 
has its Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening; Virginia its 
York Imperial, Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and 
Winesap; the central states their Ben Davis, Jonathan 
and Wealthy ; the West its Delicious, Jonathan, Winesap, 
and so on. 

Seed selection and hybridization have been responsible 
for the improvement of many cultivated plants and for the 
discovery of many new varieties, but not so for the culti- 
vated fruits. Practically all varieties of fruit are the 
result of chance discovery of seedlings. The apple does 
not come true to seed, but is propogated by grafting a cion 
or bud from a knoven variety on a seedling root. Plant- 



390 The Commercial Apple Industry 

breeding is a much discussed subject and the layman may 
conceive that new varieties of apples are being developed 
by this method. As a matter of fact, the experiments thus 
far conducted in crossing different varieties of apples have 
been very inconclusive and unsatisfactory. 

N^ew varieties are being constantly discovered and very 
often widely advertised. Some are worthy and some are 
not. The most noted new variety is the Golden Delicious 
which is being planted very extensively and in the next 
decade will appear in most of the commercial markets. 
Wherever tried, it has proved productive and highly profit- 
able. The grower may experiment but should not plant 
new varieties extensively before they have been firmly 
established, or have proved profitable. High quality var- 
ieties are very often the most profitable, but occasionally 
they prove undesirable on account of their tendency toward 
shy bearing. The Ben Davis apple, on account of its 
high annual yield, has proved more profitable over a period 
of years than some of the better quality varieties. The 
public, however, is becoming more fastidious in its selec- 
tion, and in the competition between high and low quality 
apples some of the latter are being crowded out. 

Seldom do two varieties ripen at exactly the same time, 
and with a maximum of four or five leading kinds there is 
usually a sufficiently long harvest period to permit of the 
most economical harvesting practice. Buyers and even 
cooperative organizations insist on a limited number of 
varieties, and prefer them in carlots. The grower with a 
miscellaneous list of varieties is the last to sell his crop, 
whereas the one with two or three kinds of uniform size 
and color has a decided advantage in the market. The 
farmer planting a home orchard selects a few trees of each 



Varieties of Apples 391 

of several varieties, in order that he may have a continuous 
home supply during the late sumimer, fall and winter 
months. The average commercial grower does well to 
select three or at most four varieties. This choice should 
not be difficult. Certain regions are adapted to well- 
known varieties. The consuming public is familiar with 
the name and quality of these and has come to demand 
them. Were one to plant an orchard in western New 
York, the varieties should be largely Baldwin and Green- 
ing, with possibly some Twenty Ounce, Duchess or 
Wealthy. Delicious, King David and others may prove 
profitable, but Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening have 
stood the test of trial. Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, 
Ben Davis, Northern Spy and Mcintosh are successfully 
grown in the Hudson Valley, although proximity to New 
York City might warrant planting one or two varieties of 
summer apples, such as Oldenburg, Gravenstein or Will- 
iams. In the Champlain district of northern New York 
and Vermont, the Fameuse, Mcintosh and Northern Spy 
are suited to these northern latitudes. Across in New 
England the Baldwin, Northern Spy and Rhode Island 
Greening predominate, with Mcintosh, Fameuse, Wealthy 
and others following in importance. 

In Virginia, the commercial crop virtually consists of 
six varieties, Albemarle Pippin (Yellow Newtown), Ben 
Davis, York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman and Delicious. 
In the Ohio Valley, Rome Beauty and Ben Davis lead ; 
in Michigan, the leading varieties are Northern Spy and 
Baldwin. In the Ozark region Ben Davis, Gano and 
Jonathan predominate. Western states have a somewhat 
larger list of leading kinds. Each district has a host of 
other varieties, but geographic distribution of the really 



392 The Commercial Apple Industry 

iftiportant sorts is comparatively simple and it should not 
be hard to determine for any one locality the varieties 
which really have proved successful. It is by no means 
intended that prospective growers should select only from 
the few kinds named below, but rather than risk untried 
varieties it might be wise to select from such old ones 
and those best adapted to the particular locality. 

The following are some of the standard varieties grown 
successfully, and recommended for planting in the various 
regions : 

Western New York — 

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis or Gano, 

Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Twenty Ounce. 
Hudson Valley — 

Mcintosh, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Wealthy, Old- 
enburg, Northern Spy. 
Vermont and Champlain District — 

Mcintosh, Northern Spy, Fameuse, Wealthy, Gravenstein. 
New England — 

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Mcintosh, Wealthy, 

Gravenstein, Williams Early Red. 
New Jersey — 

Stayman, Oldenburg, Winesap, Williams Early Red, 

Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Starr. 
Delaware — 

Stayman, Gano, Yellow Transparent, Williams Early Red, 

Wealthy. 
Piedmont of Virginia — 

Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin), Winesap, StaymaJi, 

Grimes (top worked). 
Southern Pennslvania — 

Stayman, York Imperial, Grimes, Oldenburg (Duchess), 

Yellow Transparent. 
Shenandoah Valley of Virginia — 

Stayman, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Grimes, 



Varieties of Apples 393 

Winesap (in southern end of valley), Yellow Transparent, 

Oldenburg (Duchess). 
Mountain Region of North Carolina — 

Stayman, Winesap, Ben Davis or Gano, Delicious, Arkansas 

(Black Twig), Bonum. 
Mountain Region of Georgia — 

Yates, Terry's Winter, Stayman, Arkansas, Yellow Trans- 
parent, Delicious. 
Southern Ohio — 

Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, Grimes, Stayman, Oldenburg 

(Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy. 
Northern Ohio — 

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Sny, Mcintosh, 

Oldenburg (Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy, 
Illinois — 

Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess), Red June, Yellow Trans- 
parent for extreme southern part -oi state. Jonathan, 

Stayman, Delicious, Gano and Grimes (double worked) for 

south central and western Illinois. 
Ozarks — 

Jonathan, Stayman, Winesap, Gano, Black Ben, Grimes 

(double worked). Yellow Transparent. 
Missouri River Region — 

Ben Davis, Gano or Black Ben, Jonathan, Winesap, 

Wealthy. 
Michigan — 

Northern Spy, Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, 

Mcintosh, Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess). 
Western Colorado — 

Jonathan, Winesap, Gano. 
Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys — 

Jonathan, Winesap, Delicious (Red and Golden), Stayman, 

Rome Beauty, Yellow Newtown, Grimes, Winter Banana. 
Hood River Valley, Oregon — 

Yellow Newtown, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Ortley. 
Pajaro Valley, California — 

Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower. 

The varieties which will be discussed individually in 



394 The Commercial Apple Industry 

this chapter may assist in outlining in more detail the 
geographic distribution of the commercial sorts. It is 
interesting to note how many of these most desirable vari- 
eties are not new discoveries, but are over a hundred 
years old. 

SUMMER VARIETIES 

The question of summer varieties requires separate 
treatment. In their selection, the proximity to markets 
is an important factor. The great perishability of early 
apples limits their production to such regions as have access 
to ready markets. 

It is sometimes suggested that the commercial grower 
may well have a number of varieties ripening at different 
times in order to supply the demands of local or nearby 
markets throughout a long season. In some instances 
this may be advisable, particularly in the case of small 
growers in the vicinity of large cities, who do most of their 
own work and where the orchardist or a member of his I 
family markets the fruit locally. The extra expense of 
harvesting apples in small quantities is a strong argument , 
against too wide diversification. 

The growing of summer varieties has proved very profit- 
able to many growers who are so situated that their fruit 
reaches the market in advance of that from other regions 
and to growers who cater to local and special markets. A 
light soil which warms up early is essential. 

It is difficult to draw a sharp line between summer, fall 
and winter varieties. A variety may be known as a fall 
sort in one section and as a winter in another. It is prob- 
ably safer to make an arbitrary distinction based on har- 
vesting dates rather than on varieties. Summer kinds in- 






Varieties of Apples 395 

elude those normally consumed before September 15th ; fall 
varieties, those normally disposed of by November 15th; 
and winter sorts those consumed after November 15th, 
Were there only the two classes, summer and winter, it 
might be well to include among summer varieties those 
which are consumed normally before October 15th. 

Winter varieties are usually considered as those com- 
monly held in storage. The dates of ripening of the same 
variety in different regions sometimes works to the advant- 
age of the earlier sections. One instance of the kind is 
found in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, where Jon- 
athans mature earlier than in the other western apple 
districts. For this reason, New Mexico Jonathans have 
a distinct advantage in the Texas markets. Variation in 
ripening dates is further exemplified in such northern 
states as Wisconsin and Minnesota, where varieties con- 
sidered in some sections as strictly summer apples do not 
ripen until fall. The Oldenburg (Duchess) is an exam- 
ple of this kind. The Baldwin apple, generally known, 
and particularly in New York and New England, as a 
strictly winter variety, is considered a fall apple in some 
parts of Maryland and Virginia. 

LATE VARIETIES 

The following varieties, divided into early and late, are 
arranged in their order of importance in total commercial 
production. They are discussed from a commercial stand- 
point, with reference to their adaptation and distribution 
throughout the different apple regions of the United 
States. No consideration was given to home orchard pro- 
duction in establishing order of importance. 



396 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Baldwin (Plate XXI). 

Approximately 50 per cent of the commercial apple 
production in ]S>^ew York and New England consists of 
Baldwins. This variety is said to have originated as a 
chance seedling in Massachusetts in about 1740. While 
its culture is largely confined to these states, to Michigan 
and the northern parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania, it is 
the leading commercial apple in the United States. The 
question of selecting Baldwin for commercial planting 
outside of this region should be considered very carefully, 
but within these confines it is almost invariably a wise 
choice. 

In more southern latitudes, the fruit ripens early and 
tends to drop prematurely, while in northern New York 
and upper New England the wood sometimes winter-kills. 
The tree is strong, large and vigorous, the many old Bald- 
win orchards in western New York testifying to its long- 
evity. While somewhat late in coming to full bearing, and 
once matured inclined to biennial bearing, in total pro- 
duction the Baldwin tree is one of the heavy bearers, and 
in commercial importance it stands preeminent. The 
ideal Baldwin soil is a fine sandy loam underlaid by plas- 
tic light clay or heavy silt loam. The fruit is of good 
quality, stands shipment and keeps comparatively well, 
although it sometimes develops Baldwin spot both before 
and after picking. The Baldwin crop is shipped almost 
exclusively in barrels and much of it is used for culinary 
purposes. The selling price, while not the highest, is 
usually firm. The variety figures prominently in the ex- 
port trade. 



Varieties of Apples 397 

Ben Davis. 

The Ben Davis comes next to the Baldwin in commercial 
importance on account of its wide distribution.. It is 
thought to have originated in the southern states about 
1800 and has been a leading commercial variety for many 
years, particularly in Missouri and Arkansas where, with 
the Gano, it represents from 60 to 80 per cent of the 
commercial production. The Ben Davis apple has played 
an important part in nearly every commercial apple-grow- 
ing region in this country, and thrives in nearly all but the 
most northern states. The tree is strong and vigorous, 
with upright form, and seldom breaks under heavy loads. 
It comes into bearing early and yields large annual crops. 
Unquestionably Ben Davis production is rapidly on the 
decline. Very few trees of this variety are being planted 
anywhere in the country. Its susceptibility to the Illinois 
blister-canker has been the cause of heavy loss in trees all 
through the Ozarks, Missouri River region and Illinois. 
This susceptibility seems the one weakness in the tree. 

The fruit ranks lowest in dessert quality of all leading 
varieties, yet for cooking, shipping, and keeping qualities, 
it stands among the best. Ben Davis is important in the 
Northwest where it is boxed. In the Ozarks and Middle 
West it is shipped both in bulk and in barrels, and in 
eastern states, principally Virginia, it is largely barreled. 

It is adapted to a very wide range of soils, perhaps more 
so than any other standard variety. Despite low prices, 
Ben Davis has unquestionably been a profitable apple on 
account of its large annual yields. From a strictly mone- 
tary standpoint, and over a long period of years, commer- 
cial growers rank Ben Davis among their best paying 
sorts. 



398 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Winesap. 

This old and well known apple is one of the most import- 
ant commercial varieties. It is growing in popularity and 
its production has been greatly increased in recent years. 
It is particularly adapted to the Piedmont section of Vir- 
ginia and to the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in Wash- 
ington, where it is the leading variety. In the Missouri 
River region, at the intersection of ISTebraska, Missouri, 
Iowa and Kansas, and also in southern Illinois, the Wine- 
sap production is increasing. 

Excellent qualities of both tree and fruit make the Wine- 
sap a good commercial variety for the regions named. It 
is not grown commercially in New York or 'Kew England. 
The tree is vigorous, not particularly susceptible to any 
disease or insect pests, and does best on light rich soils. It 
comes into bearing early and is an annual cropper. The 
fruit tends to grow small in some sections and the tree 
does not thrive on heavy clay or low wet soil. Winesap 
apples are a stable product. They hang on the trees well, 
are excellent keepers, and sell well from storage. Arkan- 
sas, Arkansas Black, and Stayman Winesap are seedlings 
of the old Winesap. 

Rhode Island Greening. 

Rhode Island Greening, originating in Rhode Island 
about two centuries ago, is second in importance to Baldwin 
in New York state and its distribution throughout the 
northeastern part of the United States coincides largely 
with that of the latter variety. The Greening fits in well 
with the Baldwin in a farm management scheme, since it 
ripens somewhat earlier and very often produces a crop 
during the light year for Baldwins, 



Varieties of Apples 399 

The tree is large, vigorous and productive, but given to 
biennial bearing. It prefers a fertile surface soil of grav- 
elly or sandy loam, underlaid by a well drained clay loam. 
The apple-scab fungus is one of its worst enemies. Com- 
mercial plantings are almost exclusively in New York, 
New England, Ohio, Michigan, and the more northern 
parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The apples are 
rather large and grade out well. The storage limit is 
usually February or March. 

Jonathan. 

Jonathan is a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg, and 
originated at Woodstock in Ulster County, New York. It 
was first described in 1826 and named after Jonathan 
Hasbrouck, who first called attention to the variety. The 
stronghold of the Jonathan as a commercial apple is in the 
middle western and western states. There are few com- 
mercial plantings of this variety east of the Mississippi. 
Jonathan is the leading sort in both Colorado and Idaho, 
and is important in Washington, Utah and New Mexico, 
being grown under irrigation in large commercial quanti- 
ties in all five states. The high quality and brilliant red 
coloring adapts it particularly to the boxed apple industry. 
Irrigation overcomes its tendency towards small size. The 
Jonathan has rather extensive distribution through the 
Middle West, particularly in the loess soil region, along 
the Missouri River at the intersection of Iowa, Missouri, 
Nebraska and Kansas. Here it is a barreled apple. 

In quality the fruit ranks high. The' tree, although 
inclined to a somewhat drooping willowy habit of growth, 
is vigorous and yields well as it is adapted to rich soil. 
Under irrigation it is sometimes subject to fire-blight, 



400 The Commercial Apple Industry 

although not to such an extent as the Esopus Spitzenburg. 
The fruit brings high prices but is inclined to develop the 
Jonathan spot in storage. It is usually consumed before 
February and is the first of the leading varieties to be 
moved from the western irrigated regions. Normal har- 
vest period is September 10th to 20th. 

York Imperial. 

York Imperial originated shortly after 1800 near York, 
Pennsylvania. It was propagated before 1830 by Jon- 
athan Jessop under the name of Johnson's Fine Winter 
which it still retains in many remote parts of the South, 
The commercial production of York Imperial is largely 
confined to the valley of the Shenandoah, in Virginia, and 
to the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania, centering in 
Frederick County, Virginia; Berkeley County, West Vir- 
ginia; Washington County, Maryland; Franklin and 
Adams counties, Pennsylvania. Outside of these and 
adjoining counties, the distribution of York Imperial is 
scattering and relatively unimportant, being chiefly in the 
Middle West. In the district defined, however, this var- 
iety is preeminent and contributes large quantities of 
commercial apples. 

Although tending to bear biennially, it yields heavy 
crops and is the most reliable variety in the Shenandoah- 
Cumberland region where it has long been one of the 
leading export apples. It has a preference for heavy 
clay and limestone soils. The fruit is oblique, or lop- 
sided, and is inclined to scald in storage. The fruit is 
also very susceptible to cedar-rust. The normal season 
ends in February. 



Varieties of Apples 401 

Rome. 

The Kome Beauty, a native of the Ohio River Valley, 
was first planted on the farm of Alanson Gillette at Proc- 
torville, Ohio, in 1817, and was known as Gillett's Seed- 
ling until 1832. It has sprung to great prominence in 
southern Ohio and in the irrigated districts of the Pacific 
Northwest. The tree is vigorous, bears early, is suscept- 
ible to few diseases and insect pests, seldom breaks with 
a heavy load, and yields heavily in the Northwest. 

The Rome Beauty, although not of the highest quality, 
ranks as a good commercial variety in its proper regions. 
It is especially desired for baking. The fruit stands up 
exceptionally well in storage, keeping as late as May. It 
is occasionally criticized for lack of color at maturity, but 
seldom lacks good size. Extensive plantings are not found 
outside of the Pacific Northwest and the Ohio Valley, but 
in these regions it has proved very profitable. 

Northern Spy. 

The Northern Spy originated at East Bloomfield, New 
York, in a seedling orchard planted by Herman Chapin 
about 1800 and was recognized by the American Pomolog- 
ical Society in 1852. It has a rather wide distribution 
throughout the northeastern part of the United States, but 
is declining in importance as a commercial variety. Mich- 
igan has as large a percentage of Northern Spys as any 
state, unless it should be Vermont, although production in 
the former state is many times that of the latter. The 
" Spy " is generally grown throughout New York, and 
is a farm orchard variety in many districts. It is adapted 
to the northermost counties of the latter state and is widely 



402 The Commercial Apple Industry 

grown in Canada. 'Sew York leads in commercial pro- 
duction of '' Spys " in this country, followed by Michigan. 
The tree is considered hardy and vigorous, although 
somewhat susceptible to the apple-scab. Its root system is 
very often used as a stock for other less vigorous varieties. 
One of its principal disadvantages is the lateness at which 
it comes into bearing. When properly matured, the ISTorth- 
em Spy is a high quality apple and a good keeper, but as a 
commercial variety it should be grown on heavy soils, as it 
is deficient in quality when grown in sandy soils. It is 
not adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, pre- 
ferring cooler regions. It matures too early south of Penn- 
sylvania to be profitable commercially. 

Yellow Newtown {Albemarle Pippin) (Plate XXII). 

This variety is one of the oldest in America and one with 
very interesting historical association. The origin is 
credited to Long Island, in the early part of the eighteenth 
century. Although first grown in New York, jS'ew Jersey 
and Pennsylvania, its wider cultivation occurred in the 
Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly in Albemarle 
County, to which locality it is especially adapted and where 
it afterwards became known as the Albemarle Pippin. 
The Newtown is reported to have been exported to Eng- 
land as early as 1759 and since that time has commanded 
the highest prices on the English market. It is generally 
known as an export apple for which it is particularly 
adapted on account of its late keeping qualities. 

The principal commercial regions for the ^Newtown are : 
the Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly Albemarle 
and Nelson counties; the Hood River and Rogue River 
valleys in Oregon; the Pajaro or Watsonville section in 



Varieties of Apples 403 

California ; and the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, in the 
state of Washington. The Pajaro Vallej, in Santa Cruz 
and Monterey counties, California, leads in total produc- 
tion of Yellow Newtown apples, having produced 1,700,- 
000 packed boxes in 1919. These were practically all 
grown within a radius of ten miles of the town of Watson-: 
ville. Oregon is second. Both states, and possibly Wash- 
ington, take precedence over Virginia from the standpoint 
of quantity produced. It may be seen that the Yellow 
Newtown apple is somewhat exacting in its soil and clim- 
atic requirements, since the bulk of its commercial produc- 
tion in the United States comes from the six or eight coun- 
ties described above. It is a good commercial variety, 
keeps well, and commands the highest export prices. Its 
tendency is towards shy bearing, however, and it is partic- 
ularly susceptible to apple-scab and bitter-rot and to 
anthracnose in the Hood River Valley. The selling price 
of the frnit has made it profitable in the regions described, 
despite somewhat low yields. Virginia and Hood River 
" Newtowns " are of particularly high quality. 

The tree is a rather slow grower and does not come into 
full bearing as early as some varieties. The fruit is solid 
green at harvesting, developing a yellow color late in the 
season. As stated above, the Newtown is exacting and its 
selection for extensive planting should only follow careful 
investigation of the adaptability to a particular region. 

Esopus Spitzenhurg (Plate XXIII). 

The Esopus, known more commonly in commercial dis- 
tricts as Spitzenhurg, originated at Esopus, Ulster County, 
New York, over one hundred years ago. It is an import- 
ant western boxed apple extensively grown in the Wen- 



404 The Commercial Apple Industry 

atchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, and in Hood 
River and Eogiie Eiver valleys, Oregon. Aside from dis- 
tribution in western irrigated sections, it is grown in quan- 
tity in the Hudson and Mohawk valleys of Xew York, and 
in a more limited way in western New York. 

The Spitzenburg rivals the Newtown in the Hood River 
Valley and ranks among the leading varieties in Wenatchee 
and Yakima. Fire-blight has exacted heavy tolls from the 
Spitzenburg plantings, in both the Yakima Valley and the 
Rogue Valley, Oregon, and for this reason the variety has 
grown into disfavor. The fruit is excellent from the stand- 
point of dessert, cooking and keeping qualities. The tree 
is inclined to shy bearing, however, and must be protected 
carefully from disease and insect infestation. It is more 
susceptible to fire-blight than any other commercity vari- 
ety. Except in the Hood River Valley and possibly one 
or two other districts, it is not generally looked on by com- 
mercial growers as very profitable. One of the most notice- 
able characteristics of the Esopus is its peculiar habit of 
tree growth, in the form of long pole-like branches which 
are difficult to control in pruning. 



I 



Grimes Golden. 

Originating in West Virginia, and mentioned as a com^ 
mercial variety as early as 1800, the Grimes Golden has 
rather wide distribution throughout the state of its origin, 
Virginia, Maryland, Ohio Valley, middle west and western 
states. Important commercial quantities are produced in 
Washington, West Virginia, Maryland, the Ozarks, south- 
ern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri River region. 
The fruit is unsurpassed in quality, regular in its cylin- 
drical form, and uniformly a rich golden yellow. The 



J 



Varieties of Apples 405' 

skin is subject to scald in storage, but the flesh keeps well. 
The tree is not sufficiently hardy to withstand rigorous win- 
ters and is also subject to collar-rot, the latter tendency 
being one of its chief weaknesses. When planting, it 
should always be double worked so as to overcome this tend- 
ency. The Grimes is an important commercial variety in 
Missouri, a somewhat refreshing comparison with the pre- 
ponderance of Ben Davis in this region. In some sections 
the fruit tends to be small, but invariably it is high in 
quality, a strong reconmaendation for its use in home 
planting and also in certain commercial areas. 

Stayman. 

Among the newer varieties, the Stayman Winesap 
stands out as one of the most worthy and one which is 
growing in popularity in many parts of the country. The 
origin is credited to a seedling from old Winesap produced 
at Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1866, which bore fruit first in 
1875. In many ways, it resembles the old Winesap, 
although the coloring of the fruit is less brilliant. It is 
grown extensively in the Northwest, where it has proved 
a good yielding and profitable variety, its selling price 
improving as it has become better known. Old Winesap 
is looked on with greater favor, however, by most commer- 
cial growers in the ^N^orthwest. 

The Stayman is one of the softest of the winter varieties, 
yet a good keeper. It tends to drop somewhat at maturity. 
Extensive plantings have recently been made in Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, and the Virginias. It is also adapted to 
the apple sections of the Carolinas and Georgia, having a 
somewhat wider range than old Winesap in this respect. 
Stayman production will imquestionably increase manv 



406 The Commercial Apple Industry 

times since it is proving a popular variety in the eastern 
regions described. The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing 
early, and is the old Winesap in many vi^ays. The fruit 
lacks some of the keeping qualities of the parent variety. 

Delicious. 

The Wenatehee and Yakima valleys in Washington are 
at present producing most of the Delicious apples which 
appear on the market, although extensive young plantings 
occur in the East, particularly in Virginia. The variety 
is of recent origin, being credited to Iowa, but having been 
planted more extensively in the Northwest than any other 
region. While as yet untried in many sections, it has 
proved profitable in certain irrigated districts of the West. 

The tree is vigorous, grows to good size, and is free from 
any inherent weakness. The fruit is large, oblong conical, 
with five knob-like protrusions at the calyx end. This 
peculiarity gives it a distinctive appearance. The color is 
yellowish-red, usually striped, but sometimes more or less 
deep solid red. Its normal season for use ends in March, 
when the flesh tends to become somewhat dry and mealy. 
Otherwise it is a very good keeper. The Delicious apple 
has become very popular as a high class dessert apple on 
account of its very distinctive and pleasing flavor. It is 
the favorite fruit-stand apple in eastern cities and tops the 
boxed apple market in price. Its popularity with the con- 
suming public is demonstrated by the high price which it 
commands. 

Obviously the determining factor in the selection of this 
variety for commercial planting is yield. Some beautiful 
specimens have been produced on young trees in southern 
and eastern states, but whether it will prove a profitable 



Varieties of Apples 407 

variety when generally planted outside of demonstrated 
irrigated regions remains to be seen. Performance records 
of full bearing commercial orchards will be the only safe 
guide. High quality apples are y/ery often fastidious in 
their requirements for commercial success, but this variety 
is certainly worthy of a thorough trial. 

Gano and Black Ben. 

Gano was first brought to notice in Missouri about 1880. 
In nearly every respect the Gano is so closely identified 
with the Ben Davis in its distribution and general charac- 
teristics that brief treatment is sufficient. The fruit is 
somewhat smaller and more highly colored than the Ben 
Davis. The Black Ben, given as a separate variety, is con- 
sidered by many as essentially the same as Gano, although 
it may diifer slightly in some respects. Gano and Black 
Ben are now given preference in planting over Ben Davis 
in most regions. 

Yellow Bellfiower. 

Yellow Bellfiower, if not declining, has at least experi- 
enced very little increased production in recent years. It 
is a leading variety in the Pajaro Valley, or Watsonville 
district of California, where it ranks next to the Yellow 
Newtown in importance. It is here that a very consider- 
able proportion of the total commercial crop of this variety 
in the United States is grown, 800,000 boxes being packed 
out in 1919, and an equal amount dried. 

The Yellow Bellfiower is an old variety. In 1817 Coxe 
reported that the original tree which was very old at that 
time, was still standing at Crosswicks, Burlington County, 
New Jersey. Scattered plantings are still found in the 



408 The Commercial Apple Industry 

states of Maine, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio and 
Michigan, but these are confined to old orchards. The 
tree grows to large size, particularly in the Pajaro Valley. 
Fruit is usually large but varies greatly in size, a detract- 
ing feature from a commercial standpoint. Its tender skin 
necessitates care in spraying and in handling. 

Russets. 

Russet is the name ordinarily given to a great number of 
different varieties of russet apples. The Roxbury and the 
Golden Russet are most commonly found on the market 
and most widely grown. They have long been in general 
cultivation. Others of very limited production are Eng-*' 
lish Russet, Perry Russet, French Russet (Pomme Grise), 
Hunt Russet, Long Island Russet and American Golden 
Russet. Of these, English Russet and Perry Russet are 
much the most important, although Pomme Grise is very 
well known in Quebec, Canada. 

The Roxbury is supposed to have originated at Roxbury, '■ 
Massachusetts, about 1620. It is the most popular russet 
apple and is especially adapted to.northern localities, New 
York and New England. It has proved a reliable cropper 
in western New York, where it ranks next to Northern 
Spy and above Tompkins King in commercial importance. 
It does not seem well adapted to the Sou^h. The fruit is 
usually above medium to large and variable in form, the 
sides often being unequal or the form elliptical. It keeps 
until May or June in common storage and often may be 
held two years in cold storage. It is of good quality, but 
since the cold storage has come into general use, other 
more generally favored varieties have detracted from its 
popularity and young plantings are practically unknown. 



Varieties of Apples 409 

The Golden Russet ranks next in importance in the 
United States. It is of English origin and has long been 
generally disseminated. It is found extensively in the 
older orchards in western New York and parts of New 
England. Many trees of this variety occur in Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio and scattered through the home orchards of 
the Middle West. The Golden Russet is an excellent stor- 
age variety and is often exported. It is also in demand for 
shipment to southern markets. The tree is smaller than 
that of the Roxbury Russet and generally less productive. 
The fruit also is smaller but uniform in size and less var- 
iable in shape. The flesh is more sub-acid, finer grained 
and of richer flavor than the Roxbury. 

The English Russet is of unknown origin. It is one 
of the leading, if not the leading, variety in Westchester 
and Putnam counties, New York, and is generally dis- 
seminated throughout the Hudson Valley and southern 
New England. Many carloads of this variety are grown 
in Westchester County every year, although the orchards 
are not very well taken care of. The tree may be distin- 
guished from the Golden Russet by its straight growing 
habit with erect shoots. According to Beach, the Golden 
Russet trees are more vigorous, spreading, irregular and 
bushy than the English Russet. The skin of the Golden 
Russet does not take a polish while the English Russet 
does. There are also differences in form of fruit. The 
flesh of the English Russet is inferior in flavor and of 
lower quality than the Goldf^n Russet. It is not being 
planted and although a good keeper will soon be eliminated 
commercially. 

Perry Russet is quite different from those described 
above. Its origin is unknown although thought to be 



410 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Ehode Island, as it was originally called Rhode Island 
Russet. It first came to commercial attention at Perry, 
Wyoming County, ISTew York, and in Onondaga County, 
New York, where trees over one hundred years old still 
stand. 

TompMns King. 

The Tompkins King, commonly called King, first came 
to attention at Jacksonville, Tompkins County, New York. 
However, it appears to have originated near Washington, 
Warren County, New Jersey, being brought to New York 
by Jacob Wycoff in 1804, who gave it the name King. 
This variety is one of the most popular of the New York 
varieties and has long been known and highly prized in 
the commercial markets of the country. 

The fruit is large to very large and is fairly uniform in 
shape and size. It has a beautiful red color and is excel- 
lent in quality for either dessert or culinary purposes. It 
is well adapted for marketing, both for fancy and general 
trade and usually sells at an advance over more standard 
varieties in both home and foreign markets. In season it 
is best in late fall or early winter and is seldom kept in 
cold storage until after February. It does not retain 
flavor after midwinter. Tompkins King is generally cul- 
tivated throughout western New York and has proved 
profitable, particularly when planted on fertile well drained 
soils or when top-worked on thrifty hardy stock. There 
is often considerable loss in windfalls, on account of the 
large size of the fruit. 

The variety is less susceptible to apple-scab than either 
Baldwin or Rhode Island Greening. The principal dis- 
advantages of the Tompkins King as a commercial sort are 



Varieties of Apples 411 

that it is rather unproductive, lacks hardiness, is short lived 
and rather hard to grow. In many parts of the country 
the tree is very subject to sun-scald, winter-injury and 
collar-rot, and the fruit is subject to water-core. Certainly 
this is a variety of the highest quality, and local conditions 
must determine whether it can prove profitable in the face 
of inherent weaknesses in the tree. 

Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig). 

Arkansas, a seedling of the Winesap, originated in Ark- 
ansas and began to be propagated by nurserymen about 
1868, since when it has become widely disseminated. Of 
late years this variety has been planted very extensively in 
Virginia, North Carolina and some parts of the Middle 
West. It is also found commercially in the jSTorthwest. 
It keeps well in cold storage and is in season from Decem- 
ber until May. " Black Twig " is a large red apple, 
rather uniform in size and only medium in quality. It 
brings a good price in the market, but is not recommended 
for extensive commercial planting as it is rather slow com- 
ing into bearing and is not a very good annual bearer. On 
strong soils it has a tendency to excessive wood growth 
and to, encourage fruitfulness shallow soils are preferable. 
It has been much advertised and propagated, but is hardly 
living up to expectations and is inferior to many other 
standard kinds. 

Wagener. 

The Wagener has attained commercial importance in 
comparatively recent times. It was first brought to public 
attention in 1847 as being a new variety of considerable 
merit. The seedling trees from which the original Wag- 



412 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ener tree sprang were bought by Abraham Wagener in 1796 
and planted on his place, now included in the village of 
Penn Yan, New York. Wagener has never attained any 
commercial importance east of Michigan, although within 
recent years it has been planted very extensively in the 
western part of that state. The other extensive plantings 
are largely confined to the northwest apple regions. In 
the Spokane district of Washington, Wagener is a leading 
variety, although in other western irrigated regions it is 
losing favor. The fruit is in season from October to Feb- 
ruary and keeps fairly well in common storage, although 
likely to scald in cold storage, particularly if the fruit has 
not been well thinned. 

The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing early and is a 
fairly reliable cropper. On the other hand, it is short 
lived, rather dwarfish in form, and a slow grower as it 
attains full size. The fruit should be thinned, otherwise 
it does not attain good market qualities. The Wagener is 
recommended as a valuable filler to plant between rows 
of longer lived trees, but not for general permanent 
planting. 

Arkansas Black. 

The Arkansas Black, one of the most beautiful apples, 
has come into considerable prominence conmaercially 
within the last few years. It originated in Benton County, 
Arkansas, and first bore fruit about 1870. It attains its j 
greatest commercial importance in the Northwest where it 
is boxed, particularly in the Wenatchee Valley of Washing- 1 
ton, and to a lesser degree in the other irrigated regions. { 
It is also grown in the Ozarks, but not to any great extent, i 
Several young plantings occur in the East, particularly in j 



Varieties of Apples 413 

the Piedmont district of Virginia, and it is being recom- 
mended by experiment stations for planting in North 
Carolina and Virginia. 

The tree is vigorous, with long slender branches, and is 
very regular in shape. It is hardy and grows to great size. 
The fruit in regions where this variety is adapted attains 
a large size, keeps well and commands a high price, going 
on the market very late in the spring. The color of the 
fruit is red, deepening on the exposed side to a purplish red 
or black. It is one of the most beautiful of all apples and, 
although the trees require considerable time to come into 
bearing, they bear fairly heavy crops when fully matured. 

Willow Twig. 

The Willow Twig draws its commercial importance from 
old plantings in a few limited areas. Before the advent 
of cold storage, it was kno\vn as a desirable variety for com- 
mercial use on account of its very long keeping qualities. 
Otherwise, it never has gained commercial favor. Its 
origin is uncertain, but it is thought to have been in cul- 
tivation for over a century. Extensive plantings are in 
Calhoun County, Illinois, also in the northern Panhandle 
region of West Virginia, particularly in Hancock County. 
The fruit is in season from January to May, but like many 
other long keeping varieties it is not of very good quality. 
The tree is a strong grower, and bears early and regularly. 
The fruit is not attractive although it is imiform in size 
and shape. The prevailing color is red with contrasting 
green showing through the stripes. The Willow Twig is 
not generally recommended for commercial planting, but 
limited plantings have proved profitable, largely on account 
of the late keeping qualities. 



414 The Commercial Apple Industry 

White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain). 

The White Winter Pearmain is well known to the boxed 
apple and fruit-stand trade. It retains considerable com- 
mercial importance in western Colorado, California and 
the northwestern irrigated regions. The origin of this 
variety is obscure and for a long time it was confused with 
several kinds of Pippins. In 1858, however, it entered 
the American Pomological Society catalogue as \\^nte 
Winter Pearmain. It is a favorite dessert apple and is in 
season from December to March. 

The tree is vigorous and rather long lived. The fruit is 
uniform in size and shape and inclined to be roundish or 
conic in form, somewhat ribbed, but sjTumetrical. The 
skin is pale yellow with a shade of brownish red. The 
flesh is firm, fine grained and of superior aromatic flavor. 
It is not recommended for commercial planting outside of 
the irrigated districts in the West. 

Red Limhertwig. 

The widest distribution of the Eed Limbertwig is in the 
southeastern states, particularly the Carolinas and Georgia. 
In North Carolina it is of much commercial importance 
and is the leading variety. Beach gives the Eed and the 
Green Limbertwig as separate varieties, and it is probably 
the former that is so widely cultivated in the mountains 
of western North Carolina, although different strains, 
spoken of sometimes as the Royal, Sparger, Brushy Mount' 
ain or Improved Limbertwig, are credited to this region. 
Here it is a rather deep red apple ; a good keeper, and well 
adapted as a commercial variety. The tree is vigorous and 
bears well, but has little distribution in other regions. 



Varieties of Apples 415 

Yates. 

The Yates is quite widely distributed over the Piedmont 
section of the South, but nowhere in the United States is 
it grown in any commercial quantities outside of Georgia ; 
here it is undoubtedly the leading commercial variety and 
in many ways one of the most satisfactory. It is well 
known in New Zealand and Tasmania, It seems partic- 
ularly adapted to Georgia conditions, and is a very heavy 
producer, bearing fairly regularly heavy annual crops. 
The tree is thrifty and healthy, and comes into bearing 
quite early. The fruit has long keeping qualities, is very 
hard and iirm, and can be handled in a careless manner 
and still retain a good appearance. It is small in size and 
not of the highest quality. The Yates is very well known 
in southern markets, but practically unknown in the North. 
It is a profitable commercial variety for Georgia, but is 
not recommended for planting in most regions on account 
of its small size and lack of acquaintance with the consum- 
ing public. 

Stark. 

Stark is found particularly in the commercial orchards 
of Maine, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and dis- 
tributed somewhat throughout the Central West. It was 
first brought to notice in Ohio and is said to have orig- 
inated in that state. This variety has received favorable 
notice in a great many regions and was offered by most 
of the nurserymen about 1890. It is not increasing in 
popularity, however, on account of poor quality. 

The tree is thrifty, hardy, a reliable cropper and very 
productive. The fruit is smooth, uniform and keeps well. 



416 The Commercial Apple Industry 

The skin is often pale in color and not attractive, some- 
times having but very little red coloring, yet at times under 
favorable conditions being nearly covered with red. The 
fruit stands handling well because it is very firm and has a 
thick tough skin. It keeps till June in ordinary storage 
and for that reason is regarded as a good apple for export 
trade. The variety has a wide range of adaptibility in 
regard to soil and climate and is recommended for planting 
in cases where orchards are long distances from market 
and the climate is rather severe. Many other varieties of 
its season are much superior in quality and this will pre- 
vent the Stark from attaining any great popularity. 

Hubhardston. 

The Hubhardston, which originated at Hubhardston, 
Massachusetts, has long been known to the commercial 
grower. Kenrick, as long ago as 1832, reconmiended that 
it was one of the most desirable varieties for Massachusetts. 
The commercial importance of the Hubhardston, although 
considerable, has never been great in any one region. It 
is a fairly good variety for commercial planting in the 
more northern sections of the country, but varies remark- 
ably in market quality, size and color, smoothness of skin 
and flavor. For this reason, it is kno'\\Ti locally in many 
places by other names. Normally it ripens between the 
autumn and the late winter varieties, comes into bearing 
early, is a heavy cropper and fairly annual bearer. It is 
somewhat susceptible to winter-injury and apple-canker 
and seems to be more satisfactory when grafted on to more 
hardy varieties such as Northern Spy. The quality of the 
fruit is excellent for dessert, but is excelled by many other 
varieties for culinary purposes. It is an uncertain keeper, 



Varieties of Apples 417 

varying greatly in this respect according to tne regions 
where grown. The fruit from western I^ew York keeps 
better apparently than that from the Hudson Valley. The 
crop should usually be thinned since there is a tendency for 
a considerable portion of the fruit to be undersized and 
poorly colored. The Hubbardston soon loses its flavor in 
common storage. Few authorities now recommend it for 
commercial planting, although where well adapted it would 
seem valuable for planting as a filler. 

Tolman Sweet. 

The Tolman Sweet is probably the best known sweet 
apple grown for commercial purposes, and one which 
deserves even more attention than is at present given to it. 
It has long been grown throughout New England, j^ew 
York, Michigan and more northern states, although its 
origin is unknown. The Tolman Sweet is best known 
commercially in the New England states. 

The tree is vigorous, upright, open, with long branches 
and a form adapted to bearing an abundance of fruit. It 
is exceptionally productive, long lived, and very hardy, in 
fact one of the hardiest of all varieties. It comes into 
bearing at an early age and the fruit hangs well on the 
tree, is very uniform in grade and suffers little in loss 
from culls or drops. The fruit, although medium or below 
medium in size, is attractive for a yellow apple and is 
highly esteemed for certain culinar^^ purposes, especially 
pickling, boiling, and baking. It is recommended as a 
good commercial variety, although as yet the market for it 
is rather undeveloped. Like the Eusset it is highly 
prized for cider and its other good qualities are worthy of 
attention. 



418 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Winter Banana. 

Winter Banana originated near Adamsboro, Indiana, 
about 1876, and was first introduced by a nursery in Mon- 
roe, Michigan, in 1890. This variety has been widely dis- 
seminated especially in the Northwest, where it has 
attained much commercial importance. There are consid- 
erable young plantings of it throughout the East. 

The fruit is large, clear pale yellow in color except for 
a pinkish-red blush. The Winter Banana is a dessert 
apple depending on the fancy trade demand for its pop- 
ularity. It is classed as a winter apple, but matures rather 
early and should be eaten before January first as it loses 
much of its flavor after that date. The tree is productive 
and well thought of in the Virginias and southern Penn- 
sylvania districts, although on account of the delicacy of 
the fruit it is not recommended for very extensive com- 
mercial planting. It is a good apple for the home orchard 
and limited commercial planting. 

Missouri Pippin (Plate XXIV). 

The Missouri Pippin originated at Kingsville, Missouri, 
from seed planted about 1840. After 1860 it began to be 
widely disseminated through Missouri, Kansas, and the 
middle western states and is to-day one of the well known 
market apples in the Middle West. It has been planted 
extensively in northwest irrigated districts, particularly 
among the earlier plantings, but has lost favor in the West 
in recent years. It is not being planted in commercial 
orchards of any region at the present time. 

The principal advantage of the Missouri Pippin is that 
it comes into bearing very early and yields heavily. The 






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Varieties of Apples 419 

fruit has a good color, but is second rate in quality and re- 
quires considerable thinning to bring it up to good market 
quality. It is in season from October to April. This va- 
riety is not grown throughout the East and is not now rec- 
ommended for commercial planting in any part of the 
country. 

Northwestern Greening. 

The Northwestern Greening originated in Waupaca 
County, Wisconsin, and was first introduced by E. W. 
Daniels in 1872. It is widely disseminated through. the 
north central states and is one of the leading varieties in 
many sections. It is also planted to a considerable extent 
in some of the larger orchards of the Shenandoah-Cumber- 
land district and some of the irrigated sections of the 
Northwest where it finds little favor, however. It is 
not grown commercially in New York or the New Eng- 
land states. ,, 

The Northwestern Greening is a large green apple, 
highly attractive in color, but lacking uniformity. It is 
especially adapted to planting in cool regions since the tree 
is very hardy. The fruit has rather poor culinary quality, 
but rather high market qualities. In the Shenandoah- 
Cumberland region, this variety yields well, goes on the 
market early and brings high prices. The tree is hardy, 
vigorous and productive. It is recommended for planting 
in a limited way commercially in the north central states 
and parts of the East. 

Ramho. 

The Rambo is an old variety, the origin of which is 
unknown. As long ago as 1817, however, it was much 



420 The Commercial Apple Industry 

cultivated in Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 
The Rambo is grown in considerable commercial quantities 
throughout parts of Ohio and the Central West. It is 
found also among the old orchards of the East. It is 
surpassed by several varieties both for culinary and dessert 
purposes. It is attractive when well colored, being a bright 
red with yellow ground color, but very often this red color 
is largely lacking. Under ordinary conditions, much of 
the fruit is not of very good market quality. The tree is 
more or less subject to winter-injury and breaks easily 
under a heavy load of fruit. The Rambo is decreasing in 
commercial importance in competition with better sorts. 

Ortley. 

The Ortley has recently attained prominence in the 
boxed apple regions. It is one of the important varieties 
of the Hood River Valley, that section producing about 
100 cars in 1919. It is grown considerably in other west- 
em irrigated sections. It is highly prized as a dessert 
apple and is well known to the fruit-stand trade. Ortley 
is one of the leading varieties in Tasmania and Australia. 
It long ago lost popularity among growers of the East, but 
now seems to be gaining in favor in the West. It is an old 
New Jersey variety, described by Coxe under the name of 
Woolman's Long Pippin and was first named Ortley in 
1825 when specimens of this variety were sent to London. 
In the East it is not found outside of the home orchards, 
and is rarely planted commercially except in irrigated 
regions. It is a large pale yellow apple of the Yellow 
Bellflower type and seems to attain better flavor in more 
southern and western climates. Ortley is not a very heavy^ 



Varieties of Apples 431 

cropper and the fruit is rather easily bruised and tender. 
It is especially valuable for dessert use. 

Red Canada. 

This is a red winter apple, belonging to the same group 
as Baldwin and Esopus. It is thought to have originated 
in New England and was described by pomologists about 
one hundred years ago. The principal commercial plant- 
ings of this variety occur in Michigan where it is known 
as Steel's Eed. It is well adapted to general and special 
markets and brings high prices. It should be grown on 
fertile or sandy soils, where it develops high flavor, color, 
and market quality. It is not adapted to the South. In 
ordinary storage, it will keep until January or April. The 
principal disadvantages of this variety are that it is a 
rather shy bearer, lacks hardiness and is but a moderate 
grower. It is not recommended for commercial planting 
and will not prove as profitable as more standard and 
heavier cropping varieties. 

Monmouth. 

Monmouth reaches considerable commercial importance 
only in the irrigated districts of Washington, particularly 
the Yakima Valley where it is known in the markets by 
the name of Red Cheek Pippin. It is a native of Mon- 
mouth County, New Jersey, and has long been in general 
cultivation throughout the East and Central West. It is 
grown principally only in the home orchards, there being 
few commercial plantings outside of the Northwest. 

In season it ripens in common storage by November, 
while in cold storage its season may extend to January. 
The tree is hardy, long lived, comes into bearing moder- 



422 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ately young and is a fairly reliable cropper. The fruit is 
of good market quality, but if not well thinned there is 
likely to be considerable loss in low grade fruit. The fruit 
is medium to large. Its skin is yellow, faintly shaded with 
red and in the case of highly colored specimens the fruit 
has a pinkish-red blush. The variety is not important 
commercially. 

Collins. 

The Collins originated about 1865 near Fayetteville, 
Arkansas, and has only recently been introduced to com- 
mercial growers. It is grown considerably as a commercial 
variety in northwestern Arkansas, but is not generally 
recognized in any other district. The tree is a good 
grower, hardy, and has a reputation of being productive. 
The fruit is large, of excellent keeping quality and is in 
season from January to June. The flesh is white, rather 
coarse, only moderately juicy, and rather lacking in flavor. 
Highly colored specimens are bright, dark red, with a 
contrasting clear yellow ground color. The Collins has 
some attractive market qualities, but is not generally 
recommended for commercial planting. There seems no 
doubt that Ben Davis is a more worthy and reliable crop- 
per and is of equal market quality. Collins does not bic 
fair to displace any other commercial variety. 

Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet). 

Pumpkin Sweet, more commonly known as Pound 
Sweet, is one of the best known, easiest grown and most 
attractive of the sweet varieties. It originate(;i in Con 
necticut and has been known in New York for about three- 



Varieties of Apples 423 

quarters of a century. It is not grown commercially 
except in western New York and more northern localities. 
The fruit is large to very large. Well colored specimens 
become very yellow and sometimes are faintly bronzed on 
the exposed cheeks, but are never marked with red. 

Pumpkin Sweet is esteemed as one of the best sweet 
apples for baking, canning, and stewing with quinces, and 
is prized by some for dessert on account of its peculiar 
flavor. It usually sells well in special markets and there 
is a limited general demand for it. The fruit is in season 
from October to January, but does not keep well in com- 
mon storage. The tree is a strong grower, long lived, 
hardy and productive. It thrives particularly well in 
gravelly or sandy loam, with well drained subsoil. There 
is often considerable loss from water-core and from wind- 
falls, although other than this the loss from culls or under- 
sized apples is usually small. The variety is recommended 
only where the market demands a sweet apple. 

Wolf River. 

Wolf River is a variety of the Aport group, resembling 
the Alexander in form and color, although averaging larger 
in size. It has largely superseded the Alexander in the 
north central states, although both apples are popular in 
these regions on account of their extreme hardiness. The 
variety originated near Wolf River, Fremont County, Wis- 
consin, and was entered in the American Pomological 
Society lists in 1881. The tree is very hardy, a good 
grower, but a light cropper. The fruit is very large and 
often somewhat irreg-ular in form. Flesh is coarse, tender, 
juicy, but low in quality. Wolf River apples sometimes 
sell well on local markets because of their attractive appear- 



424 The Commercial Apple Industry 

ance. The tree is not generally recommended for planting 
either in home or commercial orchards on account of poor 
quality, light yields and unprofitableness. However, many 
northern Michigan and Wisconsin growers have found this 
variety very profitable. 

Sutton. 

The Sutton, originating in the town of Sutton, Massa- 
chusetts, was first brought to notice by the Worcester 
County Horticultural Society in 1848 and was included in 
the American Pomological catalogue in 1877. It has not 
attained commercial importance until late years. At the 
present time, it is being planted quite extensively in the 
Hudson Valley and some parts of New England, and its 
dissemination seems to be on the increase. It has beeiCi 
grown in Michigan under the name of Morris Red. ' 

The Sutton tree closely resembles the Hubbardston, of 
which it is supposed to be a seedling, but is much more 
vigorous and healthy. The fruit is of uniform size, sym- 
metrical, has a beautiful red color and is excellent for 
dessert. The variety is especially adapted to the Hudson 
Valley where fancy trade apples are grown. The tree is a 
strong grower and productive but has a tendency to beai 
biennially. Sutton is not generally recommended foi 
planting on any extended commercial scale and should be 
grown only in those regions near city markets where the 
fancy trade varieties are in greatest demand. 



Ingram. ' \ 

Ingram was originated by Martin Ingram, near Spring- 
field, Missouri, about 1850. It has attained considerable 
commercial importance throughout the Ozarks. Large 






Varieties of Apples 425 

plantings have been made in the more southern sections of 
Missouri. The tree is fairly vigorous, but is likely to 
bear small fruit unless thinned. The fruit is of medium 
quality and its chief asset is its good keeping quality. In 
spite of much advertising, it has not proved very popular 
and is not now recommended for commercial planting. It 
does not warrant an important place in commercial 
orchards, even in Missouri. 

Blaclc Gilliflower. 

This variety is generally known to the trade and appears 
in market quotation as Gilliflower or Gills. It originated 
in New England prior to 1800 and has long been a market 
sort in a very limited way. There are very few orchard 
blocks of Gilliflower in the country, but it is widely dissem- 
inated in both home and commercial orchards, particularly 
in New York and New England. The tree is hardy, vig- 
orous and long lived. 

The fruit is of medium size and very uniform in size, 
shape and color. It is a dessert apple which is very dis- 
tinct in color, form and flavor. The color is green, usually 
completely covered with red, which becomes very dark or 
almost black. The flesh has a peculiar flavor and aroma, 
but soon becomes dry and mealy. The fruit is often 
borne on the ends of the twigs which makes harvesting 
difficult. It usually brings a high price and particularly 
in southern markets, on account of its peculiar aroma, 
flavor, and attractive color. The Gilliflower is preferred 
by some to all other varieties as a dessert apple, but its 
popularity is very limited. It is not recommended for 
commercial planting, except in a very limited way. It 
is a good variety for the home orchard. 



426 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Lady. 

The Lady apple is known to have been in cultivation for 
well over three hundred years and is thought to have orig- 
inated in Erance. It is often seen on fruit-stands more 
for decoration than for eating purposes. It is a strikingly 
beautiful little apple, especially adapted for decorative pur- 
poses. It grows in profusion in many parts of the coun- 
try, particularly in the Piedmont district of Virginia 
where it is produced commercially in limited quantities. 
Limited plantings are also found in New York state and 
the Northwest. The Lady apple often tops the market in 
price, having sold on the New York markets for as high 
as $25.00 a barrel when standard sorts were bringing 
about one-fifth as much. 

The variety seems to do best in Virginia where it grows 
to perfection. In size it is not much larger than a crab- 
apple and it is very expensive to grow and harvest. On 
the whole, it is not to be considered more profitable than 
the more ' standard varieties. Furthermore, it is not 
recommended for general planting since a few acres would 
practically flood the market for this type of fruit. Prop- 
erly handled it may be held in cold storage far into the 
summer, but there are few demands for it after the holiday 
season. The tree is moderately vigorous. The fruit is 
exceedingly small, somewhat lacking in uniformity; flesh 
is white, tender, juicy, and of high dessert quality. 

EAELY AND FALI. VARIETIES 

Oldenburg (commercial name. Duchess). 

Oldenburg is probably the leading early variety grown 
in the United States. It is one of the most valuable of 



11 



Varieties of Apples 427 

Russian apples and was introduced into this country from 
England bj the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about 
1835. The extreme hardiness of this variety proved its 
worth and was responsible for the introduction of other 
Eussian sorts. It is superior in hardiness to the Baldwin, 
Rhode Island Greening and N"orthern Spy, 

The tree is easily grown, requires little pruning and is 
an early and heavy bearer. The variety is widely known 
throughout the North and East, and particularly in the 
region bordering the Great Lakes. It is in Wisconsin, 
Michigan and New York that it assumes greatest com- 
mercial importance. Oldenburg is produced in carload 
lots in these states and particularly along the Ontario Lake 
shore in western New York where there are many plant- 
ings of commercial importance. 

The fruit is medium to large and is uniform in shape 
and size, with firm, crisp, juicy flesh. It hangs on the 
tree well. When properly grown and handled, it stands 
shipment well. The fruit brings good prices and is unsur- 
passed for its culinary qualities. It is one of the most 
valuable early apples for commercial purposes. 

Wealthy. 

Wealthy originated as a seedling at Excelsior, Minne- 
sota, from seed of the Cherry Crab obtained from Maine 
about 1860. It is one of the most important of the hardier 
varieties adapted to the cold climates of the northernmost 
states. It has wide distribution, particularly in northern 
Illinois, northern Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, being 
one of the leading, if not the leading, variety of these 
regions. In New York and Maine, it is grown in consid- 
erable commercial quantities but in these states it is of 



428 The Commercial Apple Industry 

less relative importance as compared with other varieties. 
Wealthy is an early sort highly prized in New Jersey and 
Delaware. 

The fruit is bright red, of large size and of good market 
quality, selling well in most markets. It is normally con- 
sumed before November and is essentially a fall apple, 
although it may be kept into the early winter in cold stor- 
age. Criticism is sometimes made of the Wealthy on the 
ground of uneven ripening and tendency to considerable 
variation in size and lack of color, but with good care it 
has proved profitable in the regions described above. It 
is especially adapted for planting as a filler. 

Yellow Transparent. 

Yellow Transparent was imported from Eussia by the 
United States Department of AgTiculture in 1870. It 
has since been disseminated from coast to coast and is now 
the leading very early commercial variety. It is grown 
extensively^ particularly in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
West Virginia, the Ohio Valley and especially in the early 
apple districts of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and various 
other states. 

Since it is about the first apple on the market, it is 
sought for dessert and is highly prized for culinary pur-ij 
poses. It grows to good size, is productive and takes on a* 
good clear yellow color before becoming over-ripe. The 
crop ripens over a period of three or four weeks and more 
than one picking is usually necessary. Yellow Transpar- 
ent brings a good price on the market and thus far has 
proved very profitable commercially. 



Varieties of Apples 439 

Twenty Ounce. 

The Twenty Ounce has proved one of the most popular 
of fall varieties for commercial planting. Its origin is 
unknown, but it was first brought to attention when fruit 
grown in Cayuga County, 'New York, was exhibited before 
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about seventy 
years ago. It is one of the niost important fall varieties 
gro^vn in New York, being particularly important in Mon- 
roe and other western counties in the Lake Shore region. 

The fruit is large and attractive, being' green and later 
yellowish with broad stripes and splashes of red. In New 
York it is in season from September to early winter, while 
in New Jersey and Delaware it comes on the market in 
August. The Twenty Ounce keeps very well for a fall 
variety and stands shipping well. It is usually handled 
without going into cold storage, although it may be kept 
until midwinter in storage. The fruit is fairly uniform 
in size, is of good marketable quality and is well known in 
eastern commercial markets where it brings good prices. 
The tree is vigorous, with erect main branches, but more 
or less willowy and drooping laterals. The trunk and 
larger limbs are especially subject to sun-scald and canker. 
Closer planting may be practiced than with Baldwin, 
Ehode Island Greening, Northern Spy, York, or other var- 
ieties, which attain considerable size. Twenty Ounce is 
recommended for commercial planting in Delaware, New 
Jersey, and many parts of New England and New York. 

Gravenstein. 

Gravenstein was introduced into this country from cen- 
tral Europe early in the nineteenth century. It is of 



430 The Commercial Apple Industry 

much commercial importance for a variety of its season, 
which in the Northeast is from September to November. 
The largest commercial plantings of this variety are in 
Sonoma County, California, which ships annually about 
500 cars of boxed Gravensteins. Gravensteins are grown 
in a limited way through the other far west and northwest 
districts. Commercial plantings also occur in New Jer- 
sey, Delaware, the Hudson Valley, New England and are 
particularly important in Nova Scotia. The fruit is 
found on the New York market during the autumn in 
large quantities. 

Gravenstein is of very attractive appearance and of 
excellent quality. It is practically unexcelled for culin- 
ary purposes and is highly prized as a dessert apple, being 
usually in strong demand and commanding good prices. 
There is likely to be considerable loss from dropping since 
the fruit does not color evenly and requires two or three 
pickings. The tree comes into bearing moderately early 
and is a fairly reliable cropper. It is large, vigorous, and 
hardy, and adapted to many climates. The Gravenstein's 
place as a commercial variety is assured. 

Mcintosh. 

The Mcintosh belongs to the Fameuse group and is 
adapted to a wide range of localities, although the districts 
where it grows commercially are limited. It originated as 
a chance seedling on the Mcintosh farm in Dundas County, 
Ontario. Allan Mcintosh began its propagation about 
1870. Its dissemination and cultivation is on the increase. 
In season it varies from an early fall apple in the South 
to late fall or early winter apple in Canada. In New York 



Varieties of Apples 431 

it begins to ripen about October first. The fruit is very 
attractive in appearance and the flesh is tender, perfumed 
and delicious. It may be kept in cold storage until the 
first of the year. The fruit is susceptible to scab and has 
a tendency to ripen unevenly and to drop. The trees are 
generally hardy, come into bearing young and have a tend- 
ency to biennial bearing. The variety is grown commer- 
cially in northern New York, Vermont, particularly on 
Grand Isle, in Lake Champlain. Considerable commercial 
plantings are in the Hudson Valley, southern New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, where it does par- 
ticularly well. It is the leading commercial variety of 
the Bitter Root Valley of Montana and is grown in the 
commercial orchards of Idaho, Washington and British 
Columbia. It usually commands a very good price in the 
market and is highly prized, especially for dessert pur- 
poses. Nearly all Mcintosh apples enter commercial 
channels. 

Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek). 

Maiden Blush is one of the most widely grov^m of all fall 
apples and is found to some extent in practically all the 
central, eastern and southern apple-growing states. It is 
grown in considerable commercial quantities in northwest 
Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, and to a 
lesser extent commercially in New York and the Atlantic 
seaboard states. It was well known in the Philadelphia 
market over one hundred years ago. 

The tree is medium in size and moderately vigorous, 
comes into bearing young and is a reliable cropper. 
Maiden Blush is a standard market variety and usually 



432 The Commercial Apple Industry 

sells above those of its class. It is good in quality and is 
valued for many uses. It makes very v^^hite evaporated 
stock. 

In season it varies from a summer apple in the Ozarks 
to a fall apple in the I^orth, keeping until December 15th 
in New York. The fruit is a beautiful pale yellow color 
with crimson cheek, which adds to its popularity. Its 
disadvantages are that it is not a particularly good ship- 
per and keeper, and ripens somewhat unevenly, with a 
tendency to drop. Its place in the commercial orchard 
is assured, although its production is not likely to in-' 
crease. 

Fameuse (Snow). 

The Fameuse is thought by some to be of French origin. 
It was grown in Quebec at a very early date, possibly as 
long ago as 1600. It has long been recognized as an 
important commercial variety and is one of the most valu- 
able dessert' apples of its season. It is well distributed 
throughout the northern states, particularly Michigan, 
New York, and New England, and is especially adapted to 
cold climates. Fameuse is grown commercially princi- 
pally in the Champlain district of New York and Ver- 
mont, the St. Lawrence Valley, and in the commercial dis- 
tricts of Wisconsin, Michigan and eastern Canada. It is 
found in home orchards in many northern localities. It 
is well known in the market and during its season, which 
is from October to January, it is in good demand and 
usually commands high prices. 

The fruit is particularly susceptible to apple-scab fun- 
gus. It is small to medium in size. The flesh is white, 
very tender, aromatic, juicy, and when ripe is mildly sub- 



II 



Varieties of Apples 433 

acid. The skin is bright red, deepening to an almost 
purplish black. The tree is hardy and vigorous. The 
Fameuse is not being extensively planted in the United 
States, its place being largely taken by the Mcintosh. 

Williams (Williams Early Red, Williams Favorite). 

Williams originated in Eoxbury, Massachusetts, nearly 
175 years ago. It was brought to the notice of the Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural Society and named Williams in 
1830, and was entered in the American Pomological 
Society catalogue in 1854. 

It is one of the most valuable varieties for the commer- 
cial m.arket and is being planted to a considerable extent 
throughout 'New England, the Hudson Valley, New Jer- 
sey, Delaware and Maryland. It is also recommended for 
planting throughout the South. In season it varies from 
September 1st in New England to July 1st in Carolina. 
Williams is a large bright red apple of very attractive 
appearance and with a pleasant, mild sub-acid flavor, 
unless over-ripe, when it becomes dry. It comes into 
bearing early and yields fair to good annual crops which 
bring high prices in the home commercial market. The 
apple is highly prized for export. It is recommended as 
a good variety to plant where an early commercial sort is 
desired. 

Benoni. 

Benoni is an early apple of commercial importance in 
the Middle West. It originated at Dedham, Massachus- 
etts, and was introduced about 1832. It is a fine dessert 
apple of excellent quality, inclined to be conical in shape. 
The flesh is yellow, fine grained, crisp, juicy, and pleas- 



434 The Commercial Apple Industry 

antly sub-acid. It begins to ripen early in August and 
extends into September. The tree is large and vigorous 
and comes into heavy bearing moderately young and yields 
good biennial crops. Its commercial production in carload 
quantities is mostly confined to the early apple section of 
southern Illinois, particularly Johnson and Union counties 
where it ripens the first of July. Its production is not in- 
creasing and it finds little favor in the East. 

Bonum {Magnum Bonum). 

Bonum is wqW known in the Piedmont district of Vir- 
ginia and ISTorth Carolina. It is highly prized in these 
states as a commercial variety and invariably commands 
good prices. It originated in Davidson County, North 
Carolina, early in the last century, but has never been dis- 
seminated to any extent outside of the Piedmont region. 
It is important commercially in several North Carolina 
counties and particularly in Rappahannock and Patrick 
counties, Virginia, where it is planted in solid blocks and 
produced in carload lots. 

The tree is moderately vigorous and comes into bearing 
early. The fruit is of medium size, superior quality, with 
yellow skin, mostly covered with crimson and dark red. 
The flesh is white, often stained next to the skin. It is 
tender, juicy, and has a peculiar aroma. It is highly 
prized as a dessert in the southern markets. 

Its season extends from September to about December 
1st. This is a profitable variety only in certain regions 
and does not yield as heavily as the more standard sorts. 
It also has a tendency to drop and has a short picking sea- 
son. Its place in the commercial orchard is assured, 
although it will never be grown in considerable quantities 



li 



Varieties of Apples 435 

on account of its season. It is very valuable for home 
orchards of the South. 

Red Astrachan. 

Eed Astrachan, one of the best known and most widely 
disseminated varieties, originated in Sweden and was 
known in England as early as 1816. It was introduced 
in this country in 1835 by the Massachusetts Horticul- 
tural Society. The variety is well known commercially 
in Monmouth County, IsTew Jersey, in Delaware and to a 
limited extent throughout the northern tier of states as far 
west as the Missouri Eiver. It is a beautiful early sum- 
mer apple, of medium size, yellow, largely covered with 
light and dark red stripes, very often a bluish bloom. It 
is highly prized for culinary and dessert purposes. 

The tree is medium in size, a strong grower, moderately 
long lived, an early bearer, and a reliable cropper. It is 
necessary to make several pickings as the fruit ripens very 
unevenly and there is likely to be considerable loss from 
dropping. The Red Astrachan is not very uniform- in size 
and is a poor shipper. It is well suited for local trade 
demand, but not at all for distant shipping. Eed Astra- 
chan is so common throughout the home orchards that local 
markets are generally well supplied. Commercial plant- 
ings are not generally recommended. 

Early Ripe. 

This is a well known early commercial variety particu- 
larly adapted to New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, 
where it has attained considerable commercial importance. 
It is one of the leading commercial apples of ISTew Jersey. 
The tree is large, vigorous, and a fairly good cropper, 



436 The Commercial Apple Industry 

although it has a tendency to bienmal bearing. Fruit is 
medium, fairly uniform in size, rather inclined to be con- 
ical, irregular and broadly ribbed, with short thick stems. 
Its season is July and August. Early Eipe trees come into 
bearing young and are well adapted as fillers or for perm- 
anent planting in certain regions. Some large orchards of 
this variety are in southern Xew Jersey and in the inten- 
sive apple sections of Delaware. It is recommended for 
planting in these districts. 

Alexander. 

This apple is of* the Aport group introduced from Russia 
to England in 1817, later to this country where it is only 
grown in limited commercial quantities. The tree is usu- 
ally exceptionally hardy, vigorous and moderately produc- 
tive. It is subject to blight in some localities. Its season 
in the North begins in September and extends through Oc- 
tober. It is often in strong demand in the market and 
has proved- a highly profitable variety for those who have 
grown it in a commercial way. One of the best commer- 
cial orchards of this variety is- at Hilton, New York. It 
is particularly adapted to northern climates and is widely 
grown in Canada. 

The fruit is large and uniform in size, attractive, red 
striped, medium in quality and suitable more for culinary 
purposes than for dessert. It brings high prices but since 
the demand is limited it is 'not recommended for commer- 
cial planting except in a small way, or as a fiUer. 

Starr. 

The Starr is an early variety of commercial importance 
only in sections of New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. 



Varieties of Apples 437 

Eather extensive plantings are in the district about Bur- 
lington County, New Jersey. The original tree was found 
on the grounds of Judge J. M. White at Woodbury, New 
Jersey, and was first propagated by William Perry in 1865 
under the name of Starr. 

The tree is moderately vigorous, comes into bearing 
young and has a reputation of being a good annual bearer. 
The fruit is- large, very attractive for a green or yellowish 
apple, very good in quality and especially for dessert use. 
It is highly prized for the early market and is one of the 
leading commercial varieties of southern New Jersey. Its 
season is July to September. At the present time, most 
of the' fruit of the Starr is shipped in hampers or in five- 
eighths-bushel baskets. The Starr is recommended for 
commercial planting in New Jersey, but not in New York 
or more northern districts-. 

Red June {Carolina Red Jime., Carolina. June, Carolina 
Red). 

Red June is a southern apple, supposed to have origin- 
ated in North Carolina. It has long been known commer- 
cially and is grown in many sections, particularly in south- 
ern Illinois and in various early apple districts of the 
southern states, as well as to a limited degree in New 
Jersey and Delaware. Red June tops the early market in 
price in many sections and is particularly important in 
southern Illinois production. The fruit has a very at- 
tractive deep red color, is inclined to be oblong, with un- 
equal sides, but is fairly uniform in size and shape. 

The tree bears well, is remarkably vigorous and has an 
upright habit of growth, with short, straight, slender 
twigs. The fruit ripens very unevenly so that several 



438 Tlie Commercial Apple Industry 

pickings are necessary. This variety is well suited for 
early fancy trade demand, and although it requires consid- 
erable care will prove profitable when grown in proximity 
to early markets. 

Chenango (Chenango Strawberry). 

The Chenango, commonly called Chenango Strawberry 
or Strawberry, was first brought to attention in Chenango 
County, New York. This variety has long been a favorite 
in home orchards and special markets. In dessert and cul- 
inary qualities it is unsurpassed. It has a very character- 
istic aroma and flavor which it still retains when cooked. 

Under favorable conditions the tree is a heavy bearer, 
usually biennial. The fruit begins to ripen in southern 
Illinois, where it is grown in considerable commercial 
quantities for shipment, about the last of July and the rip- 
ening period continues for several weeks. It should thus 
have several pickings. In IsTew York and New England, 
where it is' a favorite home orchard variety, it does not be- 
gin to ripen before September. 

The tree is hardy, long lived and an early bearer. The 
fruit varies in size from small to very large. It is yellow- 
ish white, striped with red, and usually elongated, oblong 
conic in form, although it is particularly subject to varia- 
tion in quality and form, trees in the same orchard often 
producing widely different types. It is one of the most at- 
tractive apples, is unsurpassed as a home orchard variety 
and has proved very profitable when grown in limited quan- 
tities for special local markets. It is usually marketed in 
hampers or baskets. The fruit ripens too unevenly and is 
too variabJe in size for a standard variety. It is also a 
very poor shipper. 



Varieties of Apples 439 

Fall Pippin. 

The origin of the Fall Pippin is unknown, but it is cer- 
tain that the variety has been cultivated for many genera- 
tions since there are trees in New York orchards which are 
now over one hundred years old. Although a good variety 
for the home orchard, the Fall Pippin is not widely grown 
or recommended outside of the Hudson Valley and certain 
limited areas. 

The fruit is very large, tends to ripen unevenly, but 
when fully ripened has an attractive yellow color and a 
peculiar flavor. The flesh is tender, rich, and of fine 
quality, being excellent both for dessert and culinary pur- 
poses. The apple is desired by the export and by fancy 
trade, particularly in the vicinity of New York. Its sea- 
son is from September to January. The tree is large, 
vigorous, hardy, and very long lived, but the fruit and foli- 
age are especially subject to attacks of apple-scab fungus 
and thorough preventive measures are necessary in order 
to grow the Fall Pippin successfully. While not recom- 
mended for general planting, this variety would doubtless 
prove profitable in the more northern regions where there 
is a local or fancy trade demand. 

All the foregoing varieties are grown commercially to 
a greater or less extent. There are other sorts such as 
Early Harvest, Smith's Cider, Smokehouse, Fallawater, 
Swarr, Sweet Bough, Westfield, and a great many others 
which are well known to the home orchardist, and widely 
listed in nursery catalogues, but which are not important 
commercially in any part of the country, and for this 
reason are not described in this discussion. It might be 
well to mention that such varieties as Lowry, Virginia 



440 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Beauty, King David, Opalescent and certain others are be- 
ing planted with considerable success in certain localities. 
Lowry and Virginia Beauty are in favor in parts of Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina, while Opalescent is found in 
Ohio. King David is quite widely disseminated and is 
being planted considerably. English Codling, Cham- 
plain, Pennock or Pelican are found in a commercial 
way in Monmouth County, New Jersey. Golden Deli- 
cious has not yet attained commercial prominence but in a 
decade will no doubt be one of the best prized apples. 

The varieties which have been given detailed description 
will represent practically the entire commercial crop of the 
United States. The first twelve described represent nearly 
80 per cent of the entire commercial production of this 
country. This serves to emphasize the importance of rec- 
ognizing and planting only such varieties as are of some 
commercial importance or promise. Hundreds of other 
inds might be named which appear in nursery catalogues, 
bub-vthe greater portion of these are valueless either as 
home orchard varieties or for commercial planting. 

There are many new and much advertised varieties 
which are not discussed for as yet they are of little or no 
commercial importance and several years' trial will be nec- 
essary to determine their true value. However, there is 
plenty of opportunity for new varieties if they are really 
superior to the standard sorts of to-day and experiment 
stations are doing valuable work in developing apples of 
superior quality. Before planting any new variety on a 
large commercial scale, it should be very highly recom- 
mended by at least two or three experiment stations which 
have given it a thorough trial. Golden Delicious is one 



Varieties of Apples 441 

of these very new varieties which certainly is worthy of 
a thorough trial commercially. 

STATUS OF COMMERCIAL VARIETIES 

It is of importance to discuss the relative status of the 
various commercial varieties and the reasons for their in- 
crease or decline. 

Commercial varieties the production of which is on the 
increase, and the outstanding reasons for this : 

Variety. Reasons for increase in com- 

mercial orchards. 

1. Jonathan Early bearer, high in color, fine 

in flavor, good shipper. 

2. Stayman Good size, fine keeping quality, 

very productive, agreeable 
flavor. 

3. Delicious Quality par-excellence, attract- 

ive appearance, fancy trade 
demand. 

4. Winesap Productive, hardy, excellent 

quality, regular bearer. 

5. Rome Good size, uniform, attractive 

appearance, productive, excel- 
lent cooking and baking qual- 
ities. 

6. Williams Early Red Fancy trade demand both local 

and export, attractive appear- 
ance, good quality, good ship- 
per. 

7. York Imperial Very productive, excellent cul- 

inary and shipping qualities. 

8. Oldenburg (Duchess) Fine culinary qualities, hardy 

tree, fruit uniform in size and 
shape, early bearer, produc- 
tive. 



442 The Commercial Apple Industry 

-rr • , Reasons for increase in com- 

Variety. . , , , 

merctal orchards. 

9. Grimes Excellent quality — both dessert 

and culinary, fancy trade de- 
mand. 

10. Mcintosh . . .■ Attractive appearance, excellent 

dessert qualities, fancy trade 
demand, very hardy. 

11. Wealthy Uniform in size and shape, 

hardy, productive, early and 
reliable cropper, excellent 
market quality. 

12. Yellow Transparent Very early, productive, excellent 

culinary qualities, attractive 
appearance. 

13. Arkansas (Black Twig) ...Large size, attractive, excellent 

for baking, fairly productive. 

14. Arkansas Black Large and most attractive ap- 

pearance. Extremely good 
keeper and shipper. 

15. Winter Banana Early bearer, fine appearance, 

high quality, fancy trade de- 
mand. 

16. Golden Delicious A new variety being recently 

planted, productive, high qual- 
ity combining many qualities 
of Grimes and Delicious. 

The above varieties owe their popularity to widely dif- 
ferent reasons. Delicious, Mcintosh, Grimes and Winter 
Banana are in demand by the fancy trade on account of 
their excellent dessert quality. With the exception of 
Grimes, they are as yet used little for culinary purposes. 
Arkansas Black, although of rather inferior quality, is 
utilized by the fancy trade late in the season. The other 
varieties are more in demand by the general trade. The 
disadvantage which some of the apples have in quality 



Varieties of Apples 443 

of the fruit is overcome by hardiness of tree, and by ship- 
ping and keeping qualities. Certain varieties are decreas- 
ing in some sections and increasing in others. Arkansas 
(Black Twig) is out of favor v^ith so many growers that its 
continued popularity is questionable. York is increasing 
in popularity only in the Shenandoah and Cumberland 
Valley districts of the Virginias, Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania. Stayman is almost universally on the increase. 

The production of the following varieties is practically 
stationary, the new plantings about taking the place of 
those which are going out : Baldwin, Rhode Island Green- 
ing, Yellow ISTewtown, Gravenstein, White Winter Pear- 
main, Northwest Greening, Twenty Ounce, Gano, Wag- 
ener. Maiden Blush, Alexander, Benoni, Bonum. 

Of these, the Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Yel- 
low Newtown are very important commercial varieties and 
will remain so. The reason why they are not on the in- 
crease is due to the fact that the new plantings, although 
very large, are not sufficient to overcome the decline in 
production of the thousands of old orchards throughout the 
East. Yellow Newtown is increasing in the Northwest. 
Other varieties are decreasing in some sections and increas- 
ing in others. Gravenstein is growing in a strictly com- 
mercial way in New Jersey, California and parts of New 
England. Wagener, although in much favor in the 
Spokane district of Washington, parts of Michigan and 
other limited sections, is losing popularity in western 
Colorado, Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, and is now 
planted only to a very limited extent in the East. 

Gano is planted much less than formerly and is classed 
by most persons with the Ben Davis, although Black Ben 
is being grown quite extensively. Due to many young 



4:44 The Commercial Apple Industry 

plantings, Gano and Black Ben are increasing in produc- 
tion in the Northwest and boxed apple states. 

The White Pearmain and Northwest Greening are im- 
portant varieties in particular localities. They tend to 
hold their own. 

Maiden Blush is widely disseminated and brings good 
prices in the commercial market. It is not on the increase, 
due to the limited demand for its class of fruit and the 
great number of old trees of this variety which are going 
out. 

Alexander and Benoni are grown only in a limited way 
commercially, and are striving to hold their ovni against 
the Duchess and Yellow Transparent. 

Twenty Ounce is in favor in certain sections of New 
York, New Jersey and Delaware, but its susceptibility to 
canker has checked planting. 

Bonum, important in certain southern markets, and of 
superior quality, is at present largely dependent on Eap- 
pahannock and Patrick counties, Virginia, and western 
North Carolina for its continued commercial importance. 

The following varieties are declining in commercial im- 
portance and in another generation many of them will have 
disappeared from the commercial orchards. Many of 
these varieties are among the most important in the 
country, but they evidently are not as generally profitable 
as others which, for various reasons, excel them in a com- 
bination of qualities. 

Variety. Reasons for decline in com- 

mercial orchards. 

1. Ben Davis Low quality, susceptible to 

blister-canker. 



Varieties of Apples 445 

T7 . , Reasons for decline in com- 

Vanety. . , , t 

mercial orchards. 

2. Northern Spy Slow to come into bearing ; high 

cost of production. 

3. Esopus (Spitzenburg) ....Very suspectible to disease, es- 

pecially fire-blight, light 
bearer. 

4. Tompkins King Tree short-lived, fruit inclined 

to water-core, high cost of 
production. 

5. Eoxbury and Golden Former popularity due to long 

Russet keeping quality in common 

storage; place now taken by 
apples of superior market 
quality; difficult to harvest. 

6. Hubbardston Loses flavor in storage, tends to 

bear much imdersized and 
poor colored fruit. 

7. Missouri Pippin Short lived tree, fruit of third 

rate quality and small in size. 

8. Tolman Sweet Decline due to fact it is a sweet 

apple; deserves more atten- 
tion. 

9. Fameuse Susceptibility to apple-scab, 

place in market being taken 
by Mcintosh. 

10. Yellow Bellflower Requires great care in handling, 

not regarded as a satisfactory 
cropper on most soils in the 
East. 

11. Stark Does not color well, poor quality. 

12. Smokehouse Difficult to develop fruit of good 

color and quality. Other var- 
ieties much better suited to 
culinary uses. 

13. Smith Cider Does not rank high in market 

quality, and does not develop 
in size in many regions. 



446 The Commercial Apple Industry 

-p . , Reasons for decline in com- 

V Q/TV GvlJ» "771 

merctai orchards. 

14. Willow Twig Poor quality. lias declined 

since advent of cold storage. 

15. Red Limbertwig Only fair quality, market price 

below the average, place taken 
by superior cold storage varie- 
ties. 

16. Westfield (Seek-no-furtber) Fruit variable in color, usually 

lower in price than other 
commercial varieties, lacks 
culinary qualities. 

17. Black Gilliflower Does not hold flavor, difficult to 

harvest, limited demand. 

18. Ralls (Genet or Geniton). .Requires much thinning, rather 

small in size, poor appearance. 

19. Fall Pippin . . ., Very susceptible to apple-scab, 

ripens unevenly, lacks storage 
qualities 

20. Rambo Leading commercial varieties 

are superior in quality and 
uses, does not keep well in 
storage. 

21. Huntsman Susceptibility to bitter-rot, sun- 

scald and scab ; tree slow to 
come into full bearing. 

22. Ingram Second rate in quality, medium 

size. 

23. Wolf River Fruit too large, lacks storage 

qualities, moderate cropper, 
poor dessert quality. 

24. Collins Lacking in dessert quality, flesh 

coarse and lacking in flavor. 

25. Lawver (Delaware Red). ..Lacking in dessert quality, not 

a very reliable cropper, place 
taken by cold storage varieties 
of superior quality. 

26. Blue Pearmain Not a reliable cropper, rather 



Varieties of Apples 447 

TT . , Reasons for decline in corn- 

Variety. . , , J 

mercial orchards. 

low in quality, poor storage 
variety. 

27. Buckingham Poor shipper, moderate quality 

and irregular bearer. 

28. Falla water Coarse flesh, superseded by other 

late keeping varieties of better 
quality. 

29. Swaar Tree lacks longevity, moderate 

cropper, lacking in attractive 
appearance. 

30. Red Canada (Steele's Red) Delicate tree, light and uncer- 

tain cropper. 

Of the above varieties, Ben Davis, N^orthem Spy, 
Esopus and Yellow Bellflower are of great importance in 
the commercial market. Ben Davis, formerly planted to 
the exclusion of most other apples in Missouri and many 
parts of the Middle West and South, is showing a rapid 
decline. Not only are comparatively few Ben Davis now 
being planted, but thousands of the old orchards are dying 
out through the ravages of the blister-canker and general 
neglect. Virginia is taking the best care of its Ben Davis 
orchards. 

While it is true that the Ben Davis is of low quality, its 
cost of production is very low as compared to most apples. 
Due to its heavy bearing qualities, it has proved very 
profitable in many regions. Growers to-day would make 
no great mistake in planting Ben Davis in those regions 
outside of the irrigated sections where it is well adapted. 
It is very suitable for culinary purposes and its low dessert 
quality should not overbalance its recognized keeping qual- 
ities and productivity. 



448 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Northern Spy, although one of the highest priced and 
highest quality apples grown, is being superseded by 
varieties which are earlier and heavier bearers, and whose 
cost of production is much less. It will retain its place in 
many localities, however, and will no doubt always be 
grown in commercial quantities, particularly in northern 
New York, Michigan, Vermont and Canada. It has no 
place in the Northwest, Central West or South. 

The Esopus Spitzenburg is declining rapidly in the 
East, and few conmiercial orchards now exist outside of 
Oregon, Washington and California. It is grown in large 
quantities, especially in Hood River and Wenatchee val- 
leys. On account of the susceptibility of the trees to 
disease, however, it is being planted to a much less degree 
than fonnerly, even in its most favored regions. The 
very high dessert and market quality of the fruit, which 
is practically unsurpassed in this respect, has kept this 
apple in the commercial orchards. 

Tompkins King, excellent both for dessert and culinary 
uses, is hardly suitable for commercial orchards, for the 
same reasons as the Esopus. It brings high prices but re- 
quires great care in gi'owing and is particularly subject to 
damage by windstorms. Its planting is now being largely 
limited to home orchards. 

Roxbury Russet, Golden Russet, Willow Twig, Smoke- 
house, Missouri Pippin, Fallawater, and Lawver owed 
much of their former popularity to their ability to keep 
well in cellars or common storage. With the advent of 
the cold storage, these varieties lost much of their im- 
portance and are now seldom planted in commercial 
orchards. 

Yellow Bellflower, although important in the aggregate 



Varieties of Apples 449 

number of trees in the United States, is grown in a com- 
mercial way only in the Pajaro Valley of California. It 
bids fair to retain or increase its importance there, but 
the trees in the East are nearly all in old orchards, and 
are rapidly going out. 

Smith Cider has always been largely limited to home 
orchards, particularly in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and 
mid-eastern states. Although this is an old and once 
valuable variety, it is now seldom planted. 

Eed Limbertwig, the leading commercial apple of 
North Carolina, is being superseded by Arkansas (Black 
Twig), Stayman and other recognized commercial varieties 
which surpass it in quality and market demand. 

Fall Pippin and Fameuse are autumn or early winter 
apples which are losing their place in the commercial or- 
chards, due principally to the development of other varie- 
ties of equal or better quality. They will always be grown 
to some extent commercially, particularly the Fameuse. 

AGE VARIETIES BEGIN TO BEAR 

The age at which trees attain bearing varies greatly 
with the variety and also somewhat with the region. In 
the Northwest, and particularly in the Wenatchee and 
Yakima valleys, some varieties are in profitable bearing at 
six years and are bearing full crops at ten years of age. 
In the East, however, the time required for trees to attain 
full bearing is from three to eight years longer. Trees in 
Virginia come into bearing earlier than those in Michigan 
or in New York, while bearing age for the Central West 
might be given as midway between that for New York 
and Virginia. New England is a region in which trees 
attain full bearing at rather advanced ages. 



450 



The Commercial Apple Industry 



The following classification arranges moet of the im- 
portant commercial varieties into three groups according 
to the time at which they reach bearing. In the first col- 
umn are those which are known as early bearers in practi- 
cally every region in which they are grown. In the last 
column are those which are generally classed as late bear- 
ers, while in the middle column are varieties which grade 
between early and late bearers. Some variation will be 
found, of course, in different regions. 



Early. 

Wealthy 

Wagener 

Duchess 

Jonathan 

Missouri Pippin 

Twenty Ounce 

Yellow Transparent 

Mcintosh 

Rome 



Medium. 

Winesap 

Ben Davis 

Gano 

Maiden Blush 

Alexander 

R. I. Greening 

Williams Early Red 

Grimes 

Stayman 

Baldwin 

York Imperial 



Late. 

Delicious 
Arkansas Black 
Tompkins King 
Arkansas 
Yellow Newtown 
Yellow Bellflower 
Esopus 

Northern Spy 
Stark 



Of the varieties listed, l!^orthern Spy is probably slower 
to come into bearing than any other, while Oldenburg 
(Duchess), Yellow Transparent and Wealthy, are among 
extremely early bearers. The latter three varieties begin 
to bear at about five years of age, even in New York state, 
while the Northern Spy can not be expected to have a 
good commercial crop before it is at least fifteen years of 
age, and is not in full bearing until it is twenty-five. The 
following examples will show the wide variation in full 
bearing age for different regions : in the Wenatchee Valley 
an orchard is considered in full bearing at ten to twelve 
years ; in New York not generally before twenty to twenty- 
five years ; in Virginia it requires about fifteen years, with 



Varieties of Apples 451 

the exception of the Yellow N^ewtown plantings, which re- 
quire a somewhat longer time. 

Most of the late bearing varieties are of high quality 
and all are in demand on the general market. However, 
it is on account of their very late bearing tendencies that 
many of them are not planted to a greater extent. It 
should be remembered that late bearing does not mean un- 
productive. Varieties which are late in coming into 
bearing are often more productive than the early bearing 
sorts. 

RELATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OF VARIETIES IN FULL BEARING 

It is difficult to arrange varieties in columns according 
to productivity, because many are very productive on 
some soils and unproductive on others, and also productive 
in certain regions, while not at all adapted to others. In 
general, however, twenty of the well known commercial 
varieties might be arranged as follows somewhat in order 
of productivity : 

Heavy to Medium Bearing Medium to Light Bearing 
Varieties. Varieties. 

1. Ben Davis 1. Yellow Newtown 

2. Stayman 2. Winter Banana 

3. Baldwin 3. Mcintosh 

4. Stark 4. Arkansas 

5. York Imperial 5. Arkansas Black 

6. Winesap 6. Grimes 

7. Rhode Island Greening 7. Delicious 

8. Rome Beauty 8. Wagener 

9. Wealthy 9. Esopus 
10. Northern Spy 10. Red June 

Ben Davis, although undoubtedly the heaviest bearing 



i52 Th^ Commercial Apple Industry 

of all commercial varieties, is at the same time usually the 
lowest in price on the commercial market, while Red 
June, probabl}' producing about the lighest crop of any 
commercial apple, usually tops the market in its season. 
Quality is to be considered as well as the bearing tenden- 
cies when selecting varieties. 

EELATIVE HARDINESS OF COMMEKCIAL VARIETIES 

Hardiness and health of tree plays an important part in 
selecting varieties and should be considered especially in 
severe climates. The following are well known as hardy 
sorts : 



Northern Spy 


Wealthy 


Ben Davis 


Baldwin 


Fameuse 


Yellow Bellflower 


Yellow Newtown 


Gravenstein 


Tolman Sweet 


Williams Early Bed 


Mcintosh 


Alexander 


Winter .Banana 


Delicious 


'he following varieties lack hardiness: 


Tompkins King 


Grimes 


Twenty Ounce 


Sutton 


Esopus 


Canada Ked 


Hubbardston 





One might mention a great many other varieties which 
would fall midway between these two groups, or might add 
several to each group, but the more important in each 
extreme are named above. Of the hardy varieties, Mcin- 
tosh deserves particular mention. It withstood the severe 
winter in 1917 in the Champlain district of iSTew York and 



Varieties of Apples 453 

Quebec, when trees of such well known and hardy varieties 
as Northern Spy, Fameuse and Ben Davis were killed in 
the same orchards. 

VARIETIES IN GREATEST DEMAND 

In the selection of varieties, it is important to consider 
those which are in great demand in the coimnercial mar- 
ket, and which ordinarily bring the best market prices. 
This sort of selection will often eliminate many hardy or 
productive varieties which are not generally in great de- 
mand by the consuming public. The following are well 
known and sought after in the general markets : 

Late Varieties. Early or Fall Varieties. 

Baldwin Yellow Transparent 

Tompkins King Red June 

Esopus Oldenburg (Duchess) 

Rhode Island Greening Gravenstein 

Stayman Williams Early Red 

Delicious Bonum 

Winesap Wealthy 

Jonathan Twenty Ounce 

York Imperial Mcintosh 

Northern Spy 

Grimes 

Yellow Newtown 

Rome Beauty 

Ortley 

Winter Banana 

Of the above named late varieties, Esopus, Tompkins 
King, Grimes, Northern Spy, Delicious, Mcintosh and 
Ortley usually outsell all others, while Winesap and Jona- 
than excel the Stayman, Baldwin, York and most other 
varieties in barreled apple sections. In the early market 



454 The Commercial Apple Industry 

Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg (Duchess) and Wealthy 
are probably the three best known varieties, although they 
do not usually sell for such high prices as some of the spe- 
cial sorts like Red June. 

EXPORT VARIETIES 

Varieties might be divided further into three classes as 
follows: (1) those for special or local markets, (2) those 
for general market, and (3) those for export market. 
Extensive planting of varieties which are only adapted 
for special markets is not recommended. It is better to 
plant general market varieties which are adapted to special 
markets as well. In considering the export market, it is 
necessary to eliminate some general market varieties. The 
following ten or twelve varieties have proved most satis- 
factory for the export trade : 

Barreled Boxed 

Baldwin Yellow Newtown 

Yellow Newtown Winesap 

York Imperial Jonathan 

Ben Davis Esopus 

Northern Spy White Pearmain 

Ortley 

Yellow Newtown, York Imperial and Baldwin have up 
to the present time been the favorite export varieties. 

VARIETIES FOR THE HOME ORCHARDS 

In selecting varieties for the home orchard, an entirely 
different system should be used than for commercial plant- 
ing. Flavor and keeping quality are the two predomin- 
ant qualities to be considered. Annual yield, shipping 



Varieties of Apples 455 

qualities, appearance and market demand should not ma- 
terially affect the selection of varieties for a strictly home 
orchard. Very often apples which conform to commer- 
cial standards are inferior in quality to certain sorts which 
may be grown at home. Suitable varieties for the home 
orchard are very often too tender to ship or are too irregu- 
lar in their bearing habits to prove profitable in a com- 
mercial way. 

Varieties most valuable for home use are seldom listed 
by many nurserymen, while commercial varieties not at all 
adaptable for the home orchard are often given as suitable. 
Xursery catalogue descriptions of varieties are not only 
meagre, but are too general in many ways and at times 
are misleading. Such descriptions as " fine quality," 
" very productive " and " excellent for the orchard " have 
been applied to practically every apple offered by nursery- 
men. This criticism, of course, does not apply to all 
catalogues, but one has only to read over the list of varieties 
offered by several nurseries selected at random to see how 
widely descriptions differ and to note the number of odd 
and practically untried varieties listed. A great number 
of new and odd varieties offered by nurserymen are much 
inferior in quality to standard sorts. 

To name the varieties suitable for home orchard pur- 
poses would entail a very large list, if seasonable demands 
and also varying soil and climatic conditions were con- 
sidered. Among the commercial varieties suited to home 
orchard use generally throughout the North and central 
states are Northern Spy, Mcintosh, Fameuse, Baldwin, 
Grimes, Gravenstein, Tompkins King, Esopus (Spitzen- 
burg), Delicious, Stayman, Yellow Newtown, Oldenburg 
(Duchess), Winter Banana and Rhode Island Greening. 



456 The Commercial Apple Industry 

In the more southern regions, Grimes, Delicious, Wine- 
sap, Stayman and Yellow Transparent are valuable, while 
Bonum, Virginia Beauty and Yellow Newtown are of par- 
ticularly high quality when grown in the mountain dis- 
tricts of the South. Many others are suitable, but the 
above are excellent commercial sorts as well as for the 
home orchard. Varieties not particularly suited for the 
home orchard are Ben Davis, Gano, Rome Beauty, Bis- 
mark. Wolf River, Blue Pearmain, Pewaukee, Mammoth 
Black Twig, Arkansas Black, Willow Twig, Missouri Pip- 
pin, Smith Cider, Smokehouse and many others. Some 
sweet apples find little place in commercial orchards, but 
have superior flavor and are unexcelled for dessert and 
boiling purposes. The Victoria Sweet, a very tender, 
juicy and rare flavored apple in season from October to 
January in the J^orth is one of these, Jersey Sweet, a 
month earlier, being another. Sweet Bough is the best 
summer sweet apple, excelling all others in dessert 
quality. 

Pound Sweet is a late fall and winter variety which is 
valuable, even commercially, and the same is true of Tol- 
man Sweet. The last named is one of the best apples 
grown for household use. 

Old varieties like Black Gilliflower, Roxbury and 
Golden Russet, Westfield Seek-no-further, Yellow Bell- 
flower and Jeffries are valuable in the home orchard. 
Chenango is one of the very finest apples for the home 
orchard, unexcelled in fine dessert quality. Its season is 
July in southern Illinois, August in Ohio and September 
in New York. 

It is always well when setting out a home orchard to get 
in touch with the horticultural extension department of 



Varieties of Apples 457 

the state and obtain the advice as to varieties for any 
particular locality. Also if a variety can not be secured 
from any particular nursery, the information as to M'here 
it can be obtained may be received on inquiry of the office 
of Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Washington, D. C. 



INDEX 



Advertising (effect of), 12 
Age, bearing, 120-122 
Albemarle Pippin, 402 
Alexander, 436 
Alfalfa, in orchards, 161 
Alkali, danger of, 178-179 
American Golden Russet, 408 
Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, 

86 
Aphids, life history and control, 

210 
Aphis sorbi, 212 
Archips argyrospila, 215 
Apple-blotch, 217 

rosette, 222 

scab, 216 

tree tent caterpillar, 214 

worm, 206 
Arkansas 

advantages and disadvantages, 
108 

Black, 412 

Black Twig, 411 

regional description, 54-56 

Valley region, 59 
Arsenate of lead, 239 
Arsenite of zinc, 241 
Aspidiotus perniciosiis, 210 
Astrachan, 435 
Australia, 95-99 

Bacillus amylovorus, 221 
Baldwin, 396 

spot, 223 
Barry, Patrick, influence on in- 
dustry, 22 
Basement storage, 312 
Bearing trees, pruning of, 274- 
275 



Bees, importance of, 253 
Ben Davis, 397 
Benoni, 433 

Bitter Root Valley, regional de- 
scription, 64 
Bitter-rot, 218 
Black Ben, 407 

Gilliflower, 425 

Twig, 411 
Blister canker, 219 
Blodgett, 236 
Blossom-blight, 222 
Boise Valley, 75 
Bonum, 434 

Boom development, 17-18 
Bordeaux mixture, 247 

spray nozzles, 232 
Box apple districts production 

of, 79 
British Columbia, 92-94 
Broker, 323 

Brush disposal, cost of, 375 
Bud-moth, 215 
Bulk shipments, 312 
By-products, 34S-356 

increase in use of, 14 

Cabinet evaporators, 352 
Calcium arsenate, 240 
California, 76-79 

advantages of, 113-115 

early apples, 83-84 

early development of apple 23 

Fruit Growers' Exchange, 317 
Canada, 85-95 
Canning, 355 

Capital, necessary, 126-128 
Carlot distribution, 325 

operator, 324 
459 



460 



Index 



Carolina June, 437 

Carpocapsa pomonella, 206 

Cash buyers, 314 

Cedar rust, 218 

Census figures, somewhat mis- 
leading, 2 

Centralization of apple industry, 
6 

Central leader, pruning, 261 

Ceramic oven, 353 

Champlain, 440 

district, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 102-103 
district, regional description, 
35 

Chapman, Jonathan, influence on 
industry, 22 

Chenango, 438 

Choosing an orchard, 100-131 

Cider, 356 

Citrus fruit, competition with, 
18 

Clarke, W. T., influence of, 25 

Classification, scientific, 26-27 

Clean cultivation, 156-159 

Climatic influences, 123-125 

Codlin-moth, life history and con- 
trol, 206.-210 

Codling, 440 

Collar-rot, 220 

Collins, 422 

Color, effect of fertilization, 193 

Color, indicating maturity, 292 

Colorado, distribution and plant- 
ings, 60-61 
first plantings, 26 
western slope, advantages and 
disadvantages, 109 

Commercial apple crop, definition 
of, 4 
size of, 5-6 

Commission-man, 323 

Common storage, 335-336 

Community packing-house, 308 

Conatrachelus nenuphar, 213 

Consignment, 313 

Conveyor belts, 305-306 



Cooperative organization, form 
of, 319-320 

selling, 316-319 
Cost of production, 357-386 

in different regions, 384 
Costs, other than labor, 360 
Cover-crops, 159-162 

advantages and disadvantages, 
161 
Crop estimates, 337 
Cross pollination, 249-257 
Culls, disposition of, 306 
Cultivation, methods, 162-163 

orchard, 155-171 
Cultural methods, effect on con- 
sumption, 13 
Curculio, 213 
Cutworms, 215 
Cycles, in apple industry 8, 

Danger from speculative develop- 
ment, 18 
Delaware, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 104 
early apples, 82 
regional description, 37 
Delicious, 406 
Diseases of the apple, 216-225 

in selection of site, 122-123 
Distillation types of evaporators, 

354 
Distribution, 322-327 

effect on consumption, 12 
Districts, apple, 28-84 
Diversified farms, 133-140 
Double-headed pruning, 264 
Downing, A. J., influence of, 21 
Duchess, 426 
Dusting, discussion of, 235-238 

Early apple regions, 80-84 

Harvest, 439 

Ripe, 435 
Electrically heated driers, 352 
English Codling, 440 

Russet, 409 
Eaopus Spitzenburg, 403 



Index 



461 



Establishing the apple orchard, 

144-153 
Evaporators, 350 
Exports, 11 — — '-"^ 
Export varieties, 454 

Facing barrels, 332 
Fallawater, 439 
Fall Pippin, 439 
Fameuse, 432 
Farm, size of, 125-126 

management phases, 133-143 

orchards, decline of, 4 
Favorable factors in apple out- 
look, 9-14 
Fertile varieties, 257 
Fertilizer, amount to the tree, 
198-204 

how to apply, 200-201 
Fertilizing, present practices, 
187-188 

the orchard, 186 
Fillers, use of, 153 
Fire-blight, 221 
Fixed costs, 380 
Flavor, 389 
Flooding, 185 
Fly-speck, 217 

Forced draft evaporators, 352 
Foreign market, development of, 

11 
Foreign production, 85-99 
French Russet, 408 
Friend type nozzle, 232 
Frosts, in West, 177-178 
Fruit buds, 271 

setting, 249-257 

tree Leaf-roller, 215 
Fruiting wood, distribution of, 

275 
Fungicides, 247-248 
Furrowing for irrigation, 185 
Future outlook for ^pple indus- 
try, 7 

production, 14 

Gano, 407 



Georgia, important regions, 45- 

46 
Gillett's Seedling, 401 
Gilliflower, 425 
Gypsy moth, damage of, 33 
Glomerella rtifomaculans, 218 
Golden Delicious, 440 

Russet, 408 
Government marketing agencies, 

336-337 
Grades and standards, 329 
Grading laws, 331-332 

machines, 30 
Grand Valley, plantings, 60-61 
Gravenstein, 429 
Green aphis, 211-212 
Grimes Golden, 404 
Gymnosporanqium juniperi vir- 

giniance, 218 

Hail damage, to be avoided, 346 
Hampers, where used, 330 
Handling the crop, 291-312 
Hardiness of varieties, 452 
Harvesting costs, 379 
Heaton, J. C. B., influence of, 51 
Heeling, in, 146 
Beterocordylus malinus, 214 
Hexagonal planting system, 147 
History of commercial industry, 

20 
Hollow tile, construction of, 311 
Home orchard varieties, 454 
Hood River Valley, advantages 

and disadvantages, 112-113 
region, 70-72 
Hubbardston, 416 
Hudson Valley, advantages and 

disadvantages, 101-102 
regional description, 32-33 
Hull, John, 231 
Hunt Russet, 408 
Hybridization, 389 

Idaho, 74-75 

advantages and disadvantages, 
110-111 



462 



Index 



Illinois, advantapes and disad- 
vantages, 107 
regional description, 50-53 
Implements used in cultivation, 

165 
Increased demand, 10 
Inflation, apple land values, 8 
Ingram, 424 

Insect pests of the apple, 206-216 
Insects, in selection of site, 122- 

123 
Insecticides, 238 
Inspection at point of origin, 

332-333 
Insulation, 306-312 
Intensive fairms, 133-140 
Intercrops, use of, 153-154 
Internal browning, 223 
Investment costs, 363 
Iowa, heavy plantings, 56-59 
Irrigated districts, amount of 
water, 181-182 
characteristics of 173-177 
choosing of, 177-181 
Irrigation, 172-185 
methods of. 183-185 
number of applications, 182- 

183 
time of, 182 

Jelly manufacturing, 355 
Johnson's Fine Winter, 400 
Jonathan, 399 
Jumble pack, 304 

Kansas, heavy plantings, 56-59 

Kentucky, 48 

Kiln evaporators, 351 

King David, 440 

Kraus, work of, 189-191 

Kraybill, work of, 189-191 

Labor conditions, 128-129 

cost of, 359-36()' 

efficiency of, 373 

Seasonal distribution, 367 
Lady, 426 



Leguminous cover-crop, 160 
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 211 
Leptotht/rium pomi, 217 
Lewis, C. I., quoted, 195-198 
Lewiston district, 75 
Lime, value of, 192 

sulfur, 241 

dry, 245-246 

home-made 242-244 
Locality, choosing of, 100-131 
Loess apple belt, 56-57 
Longevity of orchards, 121-122 
Long Island Russet, 408 
Loppers, 278 

Low prices, danger of, 134 
Lowry, 439 
Lump-sum buyers, 315 
Lygidea mendax, 214 



Mapnum Bonum, 434 
Maiden Blush, 431 
Maine, apple industry in, 33 
Malacosoma americana, 214 
Malus communis, 27 

sylvestris, 27 
Mammoth Black Twig, 411 
Market, proximity to, 118-119 
Massachusetts, apple industry in, 

33 
Materials, cost of, 372 
Mcintosh, 430 
Mechanical sizers, 307 
Mice, meadow, 223 

pine, 224 
Michigan, regional description, 

49-50 
Michigan, western, advantages 

and disadvantages, 106-107 
Middle West, early development 

of apple, 23 
Mill shavings, insulation, 312 
Milton-Freewater district, 73 
Minnesota, 80 
Miscible oils, 245 
Mississippi Valley region of Illi- 



1 



nois, 52 



Index 



463 



Missouri, 54-59 

advantages and disadvantages, 
107-109 

River region, 56-59 

advantages and disadvantages, 
108-109 

Pippin, 418 
Modified leader pruning, 266 
Monmouth, 421 

Montana, regional description, 64 
Morris Red, 424 

Natural draft evaporators, 350 
Natural form pruning, 260 
Nebraska, heavy plantings, 56-59 
Neglected orchards, treatment of, 

284-290 
New England, advantages and 
disadvantages, 103 
Baldwin belt, regional descrip- 
tion, S3-34 
early apples, 81 
early plantings, 20 
New Hampshire, apple industry 

33 
New Jersey, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 104 
district, regional description, 

36 
early apples, 81-82 
New Mexico, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 115 
distribution of plantings, 62- 
63 
New York, early apples. 81 

early development of, 21 
New Zealand, 95-99 
Nicotine solution, 244 
Nitrate of soda, time to apply, 
205 
value of, 192-200 
North Carolina, important re- 
gions, 43-45 
Northern Spy, 401 
Northwestern Greening, 419 
Nova Scotia, 86-88 
Nozzles, types of, 232 



Nummularia discreta, 219 
Nursery stock, 145-146 

Ohio, important regions, 46-48 

southern advantages and dis- 
advantages, 106 
Okanogan Valley of B. C, 93 

regional description, 67-69 
Oldenburg, 426 
Ontario, 90-92 
Opalescent, 440 
Open center pruning, 262 
Orchard carriers, 303 

cultivation, 155-171 
Oregon, 70-73 

advantages and disadvantages, 
112-113 
Organization, farm, 133-140 
Ortley, 420 
Outlook, favorable factors, 9 

unfavorable factors, 15 
Over-production, 8 

possibility of, 14-16 
Oyster-shell scale, 211 
Ozark region, 54 

advantages and disadvantages, 
107-108 

Package, standard, 330 
Packing, 296 

boxed apples, 303 
Packing-house arrangement, 305 

construction, 310-312 

for barreled apples, 298 
Pajaro Valley, 76-77 

early development of apple, 23 
Paris Green, 240 
Payette Valley, 74 
Fear-blight, 221 

Pecos Valley, plantings in, 62-63 
Pelican, 440 
Pennock, 440 
Pennsylvania, important regions, 

38-42 
Perry Russet, 409 
Phosphorus, value of, 192-204 
Phyllosticta solitaria, 217 



464 



Index 



Physical handling, 329 
Picking, 291 

utensils, 294 
Piedmont, in Virginia, 40-41 

region, advantages and disad- 
vantages, 105-106 
Planting, distances, 149-151 

system of, 147-150 
Planting-board, use of, 151 
Plant-lice, 211 
Plowing, 163 
Plum curculio, 213 
Pole pruners, 277-278 
Pollination, 249-257 
PoUinizers, 255 
Pomme Grise, 408 
Pooling, 321 

Potash, value of, 192-204 
Pound Sweet, 422 
Prices, relation to production, 7 
Prices western apple land, 9 
Productivity of varieties, 451 
Pruning, 258-278 

cost of, 375-376 

time of, 276 
Pumpkin Sweet, 422 
Pyrus baccata, 27 

loensis, 27 • 

Malus, 26 

Quebec, apple industry in, 89 
Quincunx planting system, 148 

Rambo, 419 

Raw versus planted land, 116 
Recommended varieties, 391 
Red Astrachan, 435 

Bug, 214 

Canada, 421 

Cheek, 431 

Cheek Pippin, 421 

June, 437 

Limbertwig, 414 
Regional development, 130 
Regions, apple, 2S-84 
Renovation of old orchards, 284- 
290 



Rhode Island Greening, 398 
Rogue River Valley, 72-73 

advantages and disadvantages, 

113 
Rome Beauty, 401 
Rosette, apple, 222 
Rosy apple aphis, 211 
Round-headed Apple-tree borer, 

214 
Roxbury Russet, 408 
Russets, 408 

San Jose scale, life history and 

control, 210 
Saperda Candida, 214 
Saws, 277 

Schizoneura lanigera, 212 
Sebastopol apple district, 78 
Sections, apple, 28-84 
. Seed, quantity to use, 162 
Seed selection, 389 
Seeds, indicating maturity, 293 
Setting of fruit, 250-254 

trees, 151-152 
Shears, 277 

' Shenandoah-Cumberland district, 
38-40 

advantages and disadvantages, 
104-105 
Shipping station, distance from, 

119-120 
Site, choosing of, 116-131 
Size of farm, influence of, 366 

of orchard, influence of, 364 
Slatted table, 297 
Smith's Cider, 439 
Smokehouse, 439 
Snow, 432 

Social conditions, 129 
Sod-mulch, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 157-158 
Soil, 130-132 

Management, chart of, 164 

management, Cost of, 376 
Sooty blotch, 217 
Sorting barreled apples, 296 

boxed apples, 303 



Index 



465 



Southeastern Illinois region, 53 
Southern Illinois, early apple re- 
gion, 51-52 

early apples, 83 
Southern Ohio, 46-47 
Specialized farms, 133-140 
Spitzenburg, 403 
Spokane district, 70 

advantages and disadvantages, 
112 
Spray -gun, 231 
Spraying, 226-248 

cost of, 228 

notes, regional, 233-235 
Spreaders, in spray, 246 
Square, planting system, 147 
Stable manure, value of, 188-205 
Stack evaporators, 351 
Stark, 415 
Starr, 436 

State, H. R., influence of, 45 
Stayman, 405 
Sterile varieties, 256 
Stewart, J. P.. quoted, 191-194 
Storage, 333-335 
Strawberry, 438 
Summer pruning, 276-277 
Supplies, purchase of, 322 
Sutton, 424 
Swaar, 439 
Sweet Bough, 439 
Syndicate farming, danger of, 18 

projects, 117-118 

Tasmania, 95-99 

production of, 18 
Tenantry, systems of, 140-143 
Thinning, 278-283 

cost of, 378 
Tillage, 162-163 
Time to buy, 117 

to plant, 151 
Tmetocera ocellana, 215 
Tolman Sweet, 417 
Tompkins King, 410 
Tools used in cultivation, 164 
Tools, pruning, 277 



Total apple crop, 5 

Tractor, advantages and disad- 
vantages, 165-171 

Transparent, 428 

Transportation, effect on con- 
sumption, 12, 

Tree-run buyers, 315 

Trees, heading 152-153 
number to the acre, 149 
setting, 151-152 

Truck, use of, 171 

Trunk-blight, 222 

Twenty Ounce, 429 

Twig-blight, 222 

Twin Falls district, 75 

Unfavorable factors in outlook, 

15 
Unfavored regions, 17 
Utah, advantages and disadvan- 
tages, 109-110 
distribution of plantings, 63 

Vacuum driers, 354 
Value of apple crop, 3 
Varieties, 387-457 

cost of production, 371 

influence on cost production, 
367-371 

in selection of site, 118 
Venturia pomi, 216 
Vermont, apple industry, 35 
Vermorel spray nozzles, 232 
Vinegar, 356 

Virginia, advantages and disad- 
vantages, 104-106 

Beauty, 440 

history of early planting, 22 
Virginia, important Regions, 38- 
42 



Wagener, 411 
Walla Walla district, 70 
Washington, advantages and dis- 
advantages, 111-112 
regional description, 64-70 



466 



Index 



Water rent, 179 

right, 180 

sprouts, treatment of, 287-288 
Watsonville district, 76-77 
Wealthy, 427 

Wenatchee Valley, advantages 
and disadvantages, lU-112 

first plantings, 25 

regional description, 67-69 
Western New York, advantages 
and disadvantages, 100-101 

regional description, 29-32 
Westfield, 439 
West Virginia, important region, 

38, 39, 42 
White Pearmain, 414 
Willamette Valley, 73 
Williams, 433 

Early Red, 433 

Favorite, 433 
Willow Twig, 413 



Winesap, 398 

Winter Banana, 418 

Wisconsin, 79-80 

Wolf River, 423 

Woolman's Long Pippin, 420 

Woolly apple aphis, 212-213 

Wounds, dressing, 278 

Yakima Valley, advantages and 
disadvantages. 111 
first plantings, 24 
regional description, 65-67 

Yellovv Bellflower, 407 

Newtown, 402 

Transparent, 428 
Yields, 339-347 

in selection of site, 118 

table of, 343 
York Imperial, 400 
Yucaipa apple section, 78-79 



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